Mobile Launcher Platform

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An MLP being carried by a Crawler-Transporter.
The Mobile Launcher Platform or MLP is a two-story structure used by NASA, along with the Crawler-Transporter, to transport the Space Shuttle stack from the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to either Launch Pad 39-A or 39-B at the Kennedy Space Center, as well as serve as the vehicle's launch platform. NASA's three MLPs were originally constructed for the Apollo Program to launch the Saturn V rockets in the 1960s and 1970s, and have remained in service to this day, with substantial alterations.
Contents
1 Function
2 Evolution
2.1 Apollo
2.2 Space Shuttle Program
2.3 Project Constellation
3 References
4 External links
//
Function
Each MLP weighs 9.25 million pounds (4200 t) and measures 160feet (49m) by 135feet (41m), and is 25feet (7.6m) high.
Originally designated the "Mobile Launcher"[1], the MLP was designed as part of NASA's strategy for vertical assembly and transport of space vehicles. Vertical assembly allows the preparation of the spacecraft in a ready-for-launch position, and avoids the additional step of lifting or craning a horizontally-assembled vehicle onto the launchpad (as the engineers of the Soviet space program chose to do).
The Mobile Launcher Platform is set atop 6 legs inside the massive Vehicle Assembly building. The Solid Rocket Boosters are mounted on top of the MLP. The External Tank is then lowered between the 2 boosters and attached to them. After that, the Orbiter is lowered into position and attached to the External Tank. The Crawler-Transporter then carries the combined platform and vehicle to the launch site, and deposits them there together. Once the launch has been completed, the Crawler-Transporter retrieves the empty MLP from the pad to be readied for its next use.
Evolution

The Saturn V "stack" for the Apollo 11 moon landing mission moves up the ramp toward its launch site on the Mobile Launcher, carried by the Crawler-Transporter.
Apollo
The MLP was originally constructed for the use of transporting and launching the Saturn V rocket for the Apollo program lunar landing missions of the 1960s and 1970s. Each MLP originally had a single exhaust vent for the Saturn V's motors. The MLPs also featured the distinctive 400-foot (120m) launch umbilical tower with arms that permitted the servicing of the rocket on the launch pad. The arms swung away from the Saturn V at launch. For Skylab and Apollo-Soyuz, MLP #1 was modified with a so-called "milkstool" pedestal that allowed the shorter Saturn IB rocket to use the Saturn V tower and service arms, and Saturn V Ground Support Equipment (GSE) was removed or de-activated and Saturn IB GSE equipment was installed.
Space Shuttle Program
In the post-Apollo years, the umbilical towers from Mobile Launchers 2 and 3 were removed. Portions of these tower structures were erected at the two Space Shuttle (or STS, for Space Transport System) launch pads, Pads 39 A and B. These permanent structures are now known as the "Fixed Service Structure" or in NASA's language of acronyms, FSS. The umbilical tower from Mobile Launcher 1 (which was the platform used for the most significant Apollo Missions) was taken apart and stored in the Kennedy Space Center's industrial area.
In addition to removal of the umbilical towers, each Shuttle-era MLP was extensively reconfigured with the addition of two Tail Service Masts, one on either side of the Main Engine exhaust vent. These 31-foot (9.4m) masts contain the feed lines through which liquid hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX) are loaded into the shuttle's external fuel tank, as well as electrical hookups and flares that are used to burn off any ambient hydrogen vapors at the launch site immediately prior to Main Engine start.
The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) vents its exhaust through the original opening used for the Saturn rocket exhaust. Two additional holes were added to vent exhaust from the Solid Rocket Boosters that flank the external fuel tank.

Water is released onto the mobile launcher platform on Launch Pad 39A at the start of a rare sound suppression system test in 2004. During launch, 300,000 gallons (1136 m3) are poured onto the pad in only 41 seconds.
The Space Shuttle assembly is held to the MLP through the use of eight attach posts, also called "hold-down bolts", four on the aft skirt of each Solid Rocket Booster. Immediately before SRB ignition, frangible nuts attached to the top of these bolts are detonated, releasing the assembly from the platform.
When NASA began launching shuttle missions, it became clear that the MLP might inadvertently pose a danger to the crew or the vehicle: massive acoustic shock waves and rocket exhaust can bounce off the platform and hit the shuttle as it lifts off. This was true for the Saturn V launches as well, but...(and so on)

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Frasier (season 7)

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(Redirected from Back Talk)
It has been suggested that Out with Dad be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
It has been suggested that Something Borrowed, Someone Blue be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
The seventh season of Frasier originally aired between September 1999 and May 2000, beginning on September 23, 1999.
List of episodes
Episode#
Series#
Title
Director
Writer(s)
Original Airdate
01
145
"Momma Mia"
Kelsey Grammer
Rob Hanning
September 23, 1999
Roz has fixed Frasier up on a blind date, but before she turns up at Caf Nervosa, Frasier has already introduced himself to another woman at the counter. She turns out to be Mia Preston, a noted children's author whose books he used to read to Frederick. He finds something familiar about her, and decides to ask her out; she accepts. When Niles eventually meets her, he is startled to discover that she bears a striking resemblance to his late mother, Hester Crane. Frasier himself clearly has no idea. He, Niles and Martin are planning to spend the weekend at a cabin where they used to holiday years ago, to celebrate Martin's birthday. Also, the brothers have arranged to have some of their old home movies transferred to videotape, so they can all reminisce together. Frasier brings Mia, and Martin has a similar shock to Niles when he meets her. However, Frasier has the greatest shock of all when he watches the home movies, in which his mother features, and suddenly realises that he is dating her spitting image.
02
146
"Father of the Bride"
David Lee
Mark Reisman
September 30, 1999
Frasier is trying to decide on a wedding present for Daphne and Donny, and Roz is apprehensive in case she is asked to be a bridesmaid, recalling her previous experiences (all of which involved wearing awful dresses). After a conversation with Martin, Frasier decides to pay for the wedding flowers. Unfortunately, when he announces this to Daphne, he is suffering from a bout of hiccups brought on by some jerky Martin made him eat, he only manages to get as far as saying: "Dad and I would be honored to pay for your wedding". Daphne, who has so far been trying not to let her mother take control of the ceremony and arrangements because she is paying, is delighted. Consequently, Frasier feels obliged not to complete the sentence. However, he becomes so involved with the details of organising everything, trying to plan things his way, that Daphne starts to worry that she will have the same problem as with her mother. Meanwhile, Niles is very pleased at having met an attractive woman through what he presumes to be a dating service. The name "Executive Match" rings bells with Frasier, as he heard Donny use it while discussing a client on the phone; it is, in fact, an escort agency, which means that Niles is unwittingly dating a call girl.
03
147
"Radio Wars"
Sheldon Epps
Sam Johnson & Chris Marcil
October 7, 1999
Frasier is very annoyed at getting a prank phonecall very early in the morning from KACL's new morning team, Carlos and the Chicken; everyone else finds it hilarious. He seizes the opportunity to speak to them at Caf Nervosa later that day, but they claim to be fans of his show and not to have intended any offence, so he graciously refrains from any angry outburst. Unfortunately for him, he receives another prank call later, whilst enjoying a bath, during which, suspecting nothing, he is actually persuaded to sing down the phone and to stamp around the floor of the bathroom simultaneously. Desperate for revenge, Frasier sits up all night composing a scathing speech of rebuttal, intending to read it on air to humiliate his rivals. Martin advises him against it, promising that it will only exacerbate the problem. The last straw comes when Roz calls Frasier to notify him about Carlos and the Chicken's currently broadcast: a medley of sound effects and sound bites, engineered to sound like a sex session between him and Roz.
04
148
"Everyone's a Critic"
Pamela Fryman
Joe Keenan
October 14, 1999
The owner of KACL has sent her daughter, Poppy Delafield, to start an internship at the station. Everyone finds her unbearable because she can never stop talking, though they are all too polite to say so. Meanwhile, Niles is very pleased with himself; he has been appointed art critic of a posh magazine, The Monocle, and is now attending performances for free and socialising with the elite of Seattle. Frasier becomes envious, and asks Kenny if he could host an arts programme on KACL, to fill a recently vacated slot in the schedule; Kenny says no. Frasier therefore decides that he must approach someone in a more senior position. To this end, he has a subtle conversation with Poppy, to persuade her to suggest his idea to her mother. She...(and so on)

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American Museum of Natural History

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American Museum of Natural History
Established
1869
Location
Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY
Type
Natural History
Visitor figures
About 4 million visits annually[1]
Director
Ellen V. Futter
Public transit access
B, C, M7, M10, M11, M79, 81st Streetuseum of Natural History (IND Eighth Avenue Line)
Website
http://www.amnh.org

Main Lobby in the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial. This vast space overlooks Central Park
The American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), located on the Upper West Side, Manhattan, New York, USA, is one of the largest and most celebrated museums in the world. Located in park-like grounds, the Museum comprises 25 interconnected buildings that house 46 permanent exhibition halls, research laboratories, and its renowned library.
The collections contain over 32 million specimens, of which only a small fraction can be displayed at any given time. The Museum has a scientific staff of more than 200, and sponsors over 100 special field expeditions each year.[2]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Library
2 Features
2.1 Human Biology and Evolution
2.2 Halls of Minerals and Gems
2.3 Hall of Meteorites
2.4 Fossil Halls
2.5 The Art of the Diorama: Recreating Nature
2.6 Rose Center and Planetarium
2.7 New York Times Capsule
3 Access
4 In popular culture
5 Images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
//
History
The Museum was founded in 1869. Prior to construction of the present complex, the Museum was housed in the older Arsenal building in Central Park. Theodore Roosevelt, Sr., the father of the 26th U.S. President, was one of the founders along with John David Wolfe, William T. Blodgett, Robert L. Stuart, Andrew H. Green, Robert Colgate, Morris K. Jesup, Benjamin H. Field, D. Jackson Steward, Richard M. Blatchford, J. Pierpont Morgan, Adrian Iselin, Moses H. Grinnell, Benjamin B. Sherman, A. G. Phelps Dodge, William A. Haines, Charles A. Dana, Joseph H. Choate, Henry G. Stebbins, Henry Parish, and Howard Potter. The founding of the Museum realized the dream of naturalist Dr. Albert S. Bickmore. Bickmore, a one-time student of Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz, lobbied tirelessly for years for the establishment of a natural history museum in New York. His proposal, backed by his powerful sponsors, won the support of the Governor of New York, John Thompson Hoffman, who signed a bill officially creating the American Museum of Natural History on April 6, 1869.[3]

The Museum's south range, by J. Cleaveland Cady, (photo c. 1900-10)
In 1874, the cornerstone was laid for the Museum's first building, which is now hidden from view by the many buildings in the complex that today occupy most of Manhattan Square. The original Victorian Gothic building, which was opened in 1877, was designed by Calvert Vaux and J. Wrey Mould, both already closely identified with the architecture of Central Park.[4]:19-20 It was soon eclipsed by the south range of the Museum, designed by J. Cleaveland Cady, an exercise in rusticated brownstone neo-Romanesque, influenced by H. H. Richardson.[5] It extends 700feet (210m) along West 77th Street,[6] with corner towers 150feet (46m) tall. Its pink brownstone and granite, similar to that found at Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River, came from quarries at Picton Island, New York.[7] The entrance on Central Park West, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt, completed by John Russell Pope in 1936, is an overscaled Beaux-Arts monument.[8] It leads to a vast Roman basilica, where visitors are greeted with a cast of a skeleton of a rearing Barosaurus defending her young from an Allosaurus. The Museum is also accessible through its 77th street foyer, renamed the "Grand Gallery" and featuring a fully suspended Haida canoe. The hall leads into the oldest extant exhibit in the Museum, the hall of Northwest Coast Indians.[9]
Since 1930, little has been added to the original building. The Museum's south front, spanning 77th Street from Central Park West to Columbus Avenue is currently being cleaned and repaired and is scheduled to re-emerge in 2009. Steven Reichl, a spokesman for the Museum, said that work would include restoring 650 black-cherry window frames and stone repairs. The Museum consultant on the latest renovation is Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., an architectural and engineering firm with headquarters in Northbrook, IL.[5]
Famous names associated with the Museum include the paleontologist and geologist Henry Fairfield Osborn, president for many years; the dinosaur-hunter of the Gobi Desert, Roy Chapman Andrews (one of the inspirations for Indiana Jones);[4]:97-8 George Gaylord Simpson; biologist Ernst Mayr; pioneer cultural anthropologists Franz Boas and Margaret...(and so on)

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Allodynia

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AllodyniaClassification and external resources
DiseasesDB
30788
Allodynia, meaning "other pain", is a painful (noxious) response to a usually non-painful (innocuous) stimulus and can be either static or mechanical. Allodynia differs from referred pain, but can occur in areas other than the one stimulated. It is dysesthetic. Allodynia is different from hyperalgesia, an extreme reaction to a stimulus which is normally painful.
Contents
1 Types
2 Causes
3 Pathophysiology
3.1 Pathophysiology at the cellular level
3.2 Pathophysiology at the molecular level
4 Treatment
4.1 Endogenous body mechanisms for reducing pain
4.2 Drugs
5 References
//
Types
There are different kinds or types of allodynia:
Mechanical allodynia (also known as tactile allodynia)
Static mechanical allodynia pain in response to light touch/pressure
Dynamic mechanical allodynia pain in response to brushing[1]
Thermal (hot or cold) allodynia pain from normally mild skin temperatures in the affected area
Causes
Allodynia is a clinical feature of many painful conditions, such as neuropathies, postherpetic neuralgia, fibromyalgia, and migraine. Allodynia may also be caused by some populations of stem cells used to treat nerve damage including spinal cord injury.[2]
Pathophysiology
Pathophysiology at the cellular level
The cell types involved in nociception and mechanical sensation are the cells responsible for allodynia. In healthy individuals, nociceptors sense information about cell stress or damage and temperature at the skin and transmit it to the spinal cord. The cell bodies of these neurons lie in dorsal root ganglia, important structures located on both sides of the spinal cord. The axons then pass through the dorsal horn to make connections with secondary neurons. The secondary neurons cross over to the other (contralateral) side of the spinal cord and reach nuclei of the thalamus. From there, the information is carried through one or more neurons to the somatosensory cortex of the brain. Mechanoreceptors follow the same general pathway. However, they do not cross over at the level of the spinal cord, but at the thalamus instead. In addition, they are grouped in tracts that are spatially distinct from the nociceptive tracts.
Despite this anatomical separation, mechanoreceptors can influence the output of nociceptors by making connections with the same interneurons, the activation of which can reduce or completely eliminate the sensation of pain. Another way to modulate the transmission of pain information is via descending fibers from the brain. These fibers act through different interneurons to block the transmission of information from the nociceptrors to secondary neurons.[3]
Both of these mechanisms for pain modulation have been implicated in the pathology of allodynia. Several studies suggest that injury to the spinal cord might lead to loss and re-organization of the nociceptrors, mechanoreceptors and interneurons, leading to the transmission of pain information by mechanoreceptors[4][5] A different study reports the appearance of descending fibers at the injury site.[6] All of these changes ultimately affect the circuitry inside the spinal cord, and the altered balance of signals probably leads to the intense sensation of pain associated with allodynia.
Different cell types have also been linked to allodynia. For example, there are reports that microglia in the thalamus might contribute to allodynia by changing the properties of the secondary nociceptors.[7] The same effect is achieved in the spinal cord by the recruitment of immune system cells such as monocytes/macrophages and T lymphocytes.[8]
Pathophysiology at the molecular level
There is a strong body of evidence that the so called sensitization of the central nervous system contributes to the appearance of allodynia. Sensitization refers to the increased response of neurons following repetitive stimulation. In addition to repeated activity, the increased levels of certain compounds lead to sensitization, as well. The work of many researchers has led to the elucidation of pathways that can result in neuronal sensitization both in the thalamus and dorsal horns. Both pathways depend on the production of chemokines and other molecules important in the inflammatory response.
A very important molecule in the thalamus appears to be cysteine-cysteine chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21). The concentration of this chemokine is increased in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus where secondary nociceptive neurons make connections with other neurons. The source of CCL21 is not exactly known, but two possibilities exist. First, it might be made in primary nociceptive neurons and transported up to the thalamus. Most likely, neurons intrinsic to the ventral posterolateral...(and so on)

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USS Navasota (AO-106)

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USNS Navasota (T-AO-106) in 1986
Career (United States)
Name:
USS Navasota
Namesake:
The Navasota River in Texas
Builder:
Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Chester, Pennsylvania
Laid down:
22 February 1945
Launched:
30 August 1945
Commissioned:
27 February 1946
Decommissioned:
13 August 1975
In service:
1975
Out of service:
1991
Reclassified:
T-AO-107 after decommissioning
Struck:
2 January 1992
Honors andawards:
Nine battle stars for Korean War service and 14 campaign stars for Vietnam War service
Fate:
Sold for scrapping 25 October 1995
General characteristics
Class and type:
Ashtabula-class oiler1[1]
Displacement:
As built:7,423 tons (light); 25,480 tons (full load)After "jumboization":12,840 tons (light); 33,987 tons (full load)
Length:
As built:553ft (169m)After "jumboization":644ft (196m)
Beam:
75ft (23m)
Draft:
As built:32ft (9.8m)After "jumboization":34ft9in (10.6m)
Installed power:
30,400 horsepower
Propulsion:
geared turbines, four boilers, twin screws
Speed:
16 knots (29.6 km/h)
Capacity:
146,000 barrels of fuel oil
Complement:
304 (as USS Navasota)
Crew:
108 civilians plus a detachment of U.S. Navy personnel (as USNS Navasota)
Armament:
As built:1 x 5-inch (127-mm) 38-caliber gun4 x 3-inch (76.2-mm) 50-caliber guns8 x 40-mm antiaircraft guns (4 x 2)8 x 20-mm antiaircraft guns (4 x 2)After May 1958:4 x 3-inch (76.2-mm) 50-caliber guns
Notes:
"Jumboization" involved the lengthening of Navasota's hull and installation of additional cargo capacity in 1964-1965.
USS Navasota (AO-106) was an Ashtabula-class oiler that served in the U.S. Navy from 1946 to 1973, then transferred to the Military Sealift Command to continue service as United States Naval Ship USNS Navasota (T-AO-106) until taken out of service in 1992. Navasota was sold for scrapping in 1995. She was the only U.S. Navy ship to bear the name Navasota.
Contents
1 Construction and commissioning
2 Operational history, 194663
3 "Jumboization", 196364
4 196575
5 Later career and disposition
6 Battle Honors
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
//
Construction and commissioning
Navasota was laid down under Maritime Commission contract on 22 February 1945 as Maritime Commission hull 2702 by Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Chester, Pennsylvania. She was launched on 30 August 1945, sponsored by Mrs. A. Hahn, and commissioned on 27 February 1946, Commander David H. McCluskey, USNR, in command.
Operational history, 194663
After three months of shakedown and training off the United States East Coast, Navasota steamed via the Panama Canal for Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and the western Pacific. Assigned to Service Force, United States Pacific Fleet, she departed Pearl Harbor on 3 July 1946 to bring petroleum products from the Persian Gulf to the Pacific fleet. She stood out of Yokosuka, Japan, on 20 August 1946 for San Pedro, California, arriving on 2 September 1946. For the next four months the oiler was in an operational training status, and on 30 January 1948 she again deployed to the Western Pacific. After serving as station ship at Tsingtao, China, from April through June 1948, she returned to San Pedro, California, on 7 July 1948, thence to Pearl Harbor in August 1948.
Navasota departed Pearl Harbor on 13 October 1948, once again en route the Far East. She departed Yokosuka on 20 November 1948 for Tsingtao and remained on station until 30 December 1948, when she sailed for California via Pearl Harbor. She arrived at Long Beach, California, on 19 January 1949, steamed to Kodiak, Alaska on 1 February 1949, returned to San Francisco on 25 February 1949, and continued to operate on the United States West Coast for the next year.
Navasota again deployed to the Western Pacific on 1 May 1950. When the North Koreans crossed the 38th Parallel on 25 June 1950, beginning the Korean War, the oiler steamed for Korean waters to fuel Allied ships in the area. In late August 1950 she put in at Keelung, Formosa, but she was back in Korean waters to take part in the Inchon invasion on 15 September 1950.
She steamed for Pearl Harbor on 22 October 1950 and then for Japan via Kwajalein and Guam. Departing Japan on 16 December 1950, she arrived at Long Beach on 30 December 1950, only to return to the Far East on 31 March 1951 for further operations off Wonsan, Korea.
During her Korean operations Navasota fueled ships in Subic Bay on Luzon in the Philippine Islands, in Buckner Bay on Okinawa, in the Pescadores Islands, in Formosa, in Japan, and in Korea. She returned to Long Beach for overhaul from October...(and so on)

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Talk:Christmas tree

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WikiProject Holidays
(Rated B-Class)


Holidays portal
v?d?e
B
Mid
WikiProject Festivals

v?d?e
Contents
1 Egyptian origins?
2 Christmas ball
3 Trinity triangle
4 How real is the supposed pagan origin?
5 Viking
6 Query
7 Trafalgar Square Tree
8 Academic definition
9 Secular symbol?
10 Nimrod and the Christmas tree
11 Pleasant River Tree Farm
12 Rocky Mts
13 Cannabis
14 Balsam Fir
15 Hanging Slaves
16 Artificial Trees
17 Usage Controversy
18 Organics
19 Name Controversy
20 Paper/Tabloid
21 Strange layout
22 Tinsel/offal
23 Tree in Rio de Janeiro
24 NPOV issue
25 Picture
26 Szaloncukor (parlour candy)
27 Origin on NPR's Says You!
28 It's origi's aren't Christian.
29 stripped Christmas tree as a Christian cross?
30 fir trees "hung from ceilings"
31 Hanging people from trees
32 Artificial trees
33 Holy Trinity
34 australian Christmas trees
35 Ethics of tree-cutting
36 Mithraic origins?
37 Deletion in Dates section
//
Egyptian origins?
I've looked around and it seems that the origin of the christmas tree might be the Egyptian tradition of bringing palm fronds into the home during the winter solstice. Supposedly this tradition migrated to europe, where other tree leaves and branches were substituted for the palm fronds. I'm not sure how this ties in with the germanic origins mentioned in the article. If no one objects, I'll add this tidbit about egypt. Zoffoperskof 05:54, 24 January 2007 (UTC)
Nowhere is there a link to a botanical reference to the Christmas tree, so despite looking for the apt' place to discuss this have used this heading. Perhaps I can be contacted for future discussion on this sub-subject. The Xmas tree is traditionally Picea Abies, but I was wondering if there's a different use of similar species in different mainly european countries? Or if due to economic reasons, the Picea is offers less of a return and doesn't look as 'trendy' these days. Steve DuboisSteve Dubois 21:41, 14 September 2007 (UTC)
The Nordmann Fir is popular in Great Britain from what I understand, at least for use as a Christmas tree. Canada and the U.S. have a variety of popular species which are cultivated for use as Christmas trees. I have been working on just this topic lately, see Christmas tree cultivation to start.:)IvoShandor 22:54, 14 September 2007 (UTC)
Christmas ball
Another common Christmas decoration is a "Christmas ball", a reflecting sphere of thin metal-coated glass, working as a reducing wide-angle mirror. I deleted this because it's not about Christmas trees. Perhaps for a more general entry on Christmas decorations or festive decor? Wetman 00:04, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)
Trinity triangle
According to one legend, Saint Boniface attempted to introduce the idea of trinity to the pagan tribes using the Cone-shaped evergreen trees because of their triangular appearance. This isn't a genuine legend in the vita of Boniface, though efforts must have been made to "christianize" the symbolic fir and pine somehow. The "Trinity triangle" doesn't sound very likely, does it. I left it in the entry while we try to focus this statement. Wetman 00:11, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)
How real is the supposed pagan origin?
According to the German Wikipedia entry, the first Christmas tree was erected in 1605 in Strasbourg (now France, but the city's culture was mostly southern German back then) and this was many centuries after paganism ended in Europe, and even Martin Luther was already dead for decades by then. How much of the info on pagan origins in this article is well-founded, and how much is just speculation? 82.83.135.95 17:45, 21 Aug 2004 (UTC)
Well, the pagan ways did not disappear at once with the arrival of Christianity. Nobody knows when Jesus was born. It was a conscious lie from the church's side that he was born on the midwinter solstice in order to make a pagan festivity Christian. Moreover, it is a fact that evergreens were used to decorate homes in the Germanic countries since pagan times. If the first Christmas tree was erected in Strasbourg it only means that the Strasburgers already had the concept, but that no documentation of a previous Christmas tree has survived.
Is the connection possible? - Yes. Is the connection possible to prove? -No. The important question is whether the pagan tradition is relevant. I think it is.--Wiglaf 17:58, 21 Aug 2004 (UTC)
it is probably true that there is a pagan connection. It is, however, indirect. Unlike Carnival the tradition did not survive in remote or rural areas, as you would expect from a genuinely pagan tradition, but it became current in urban,...(and so on)

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Venturi scrubber

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Figure 1 - Venturi scrubber
A venturi scrubber is designed to effectively use the energy from the inlet gas stream to atomize the liquid being used to scrub the gas stream. This type of technology is a part of the group of air pollution controls collectively referred to as wet scrubbers.
Venturi devices have also been used for over 100 years to measure fluid flow (Venturi tubes derived their name from Giovanni Battista Venturi, an Italian physicist).
About 35 years ago, Johnstone (1949) and other researchers found that they could effectively use the venturi configuration to remove particles from gas streams. Figure 1 illustrates the classic venturi configuration.[1]
A venturi scrubber consists of three sections: a converging section, a throat section, and a diverging section. The inlet gas stream enters the converging section and, as the area decreases, gas velocity increases (in accordance with the Bernoulli equation). Liquid is introduced either at the throat or at the entrance to the converging section.
The inlet gas, forced to move at extremely high velocities in the small throat section, shears the liquid from its walls, producing an enormous number of very tiny droplets.
Particle and gas removal occur in the throat section as the inlet gas stream mixes with the fog of tiny liquid droplets. The inlet stream then exits through the diverging section, where it is forced to slow down.
Venturis can be used to collect both particulate and gaseous pollutants, but they are more effective in removing particles than gaseous pollutants.

Figure 2 - Wetted throat venturi scrubber
Liquid can be injected at the converging section or at the throat. Figure 2 shows liquid injected at the converging section.[1] Thus, the liquid coats the venturi throat making it very effective for handling hot, dry inlet gas that contains dust. Otherwise, the dust would have a tendency to cake on or abrade a dry throat. These venturis are sometimes referred to as having a wetted approach.
Figure 3 shows liquid injected at the venturi throat.[1] Since it is sprayed at or just before the throat, it does not actually coat the throat surface. These throats are susceptible to solids buildup when the throat is dry. They are also susceptible to abrasion by dust particles. These venturis are best used when the inlet stream is cool and moist. These venturis are referred to as having a non-wetted approach.
Venturis with round throats (Figures 2 and 3) can handle inlet flows as large as 88,000 m3/h (40,000 cfm) (Brady and Legatski 1977). At inlet flow rates greater than this, achieving uniform liquid distribution is difficult, unless additional weirs or baffles are used. To handle large inlet flows, scrubbers designed with long, narrow, rectangular throats (Figure 4) have been used.[1]

Figure 3 - Non-wetted throat venturi scrubber
Simple venturis have fixed throat areas and cannot be used over a wide range of gas flow rates. Manufacturers have developed other modifications to the basic venturi design to maintain scrubber efficiency by changing the throat area for varying inlet gas rates.
Certain types of orifices (throat areas) that create more turbulence than a true venturi were found to be equally efficient for a given unit of energy consumed (McIlvaine Company 1974).
Results of these findings led to the development of the annular-orifice, or adjustable-throat, venturi scrubber (Figure 5).[1] The size of the throat area is varied by moving a plunger, or adjustable disk, up or down in the throat, thereby decreasing or increasing the annular opening. Gas flows through the annular opening and atomizes liquid that is sprayed onto the plunger or swirled in from the top.
Another adjustable-throat venturi is shown in Figure 6.[1] In this scrubber, the throat area is varied by using a movable plate. A water-wash spray is used to continually wash collected material from the plate.
Another modification can be seen in the venturi-rod or rod deck scrubber. By placing a number of pipes parallel to each other, a series of longitudinal venturi openings can be created as shown in Figure 7.[1] The area between adjacent rods is a small venturi throat.

Figure 4 - Rectangular throat venturi scrubber
Water sprays help prevent solids buildup. The principal atomization of the liquid occurs at the rods, where the high-velocity gas moving through spacings creates the small droplets necessary for fine particle collection. These rods must be made of abrasion-resistant material due to the high velocities present.
All venturi scrubbers require an entrainment separator because the high velocity of gas through the scrubber will have a tendency to entrain the droplets with the outlet clean gas stream.
Cyclonic, mesh-pad, and blade separators are all used to remove liquid droplets from the flue gas and return the...(and so on)

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John Roddam Spencer Stanhope

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John Roddam Spencer Stanhope
oil portrait by Evelyn de Morgan
Born
20 January 1829Yorkshire, England
Died
2 August 1908Florence, Italy
Restingplace
English Cemetery, Florence
Nationality
British
Occupation
painter
John Roddam Spencer-Stanhope[1] (20 January 1829 2 August 1908) is an English artist associated with Edward Burne-Jones and George Frederic Watts and often regarded as a second-wave pre-Raphaelite. His work is also studied within the context of Aestheticism and British Symbolism.[2] As a painter, Stanhope worked in oil, watercolor, fresco, and mixed media. His subject matter was mythological, allegorical, biblical, and contemporary. Stanhope was born in Yorkshire, England, and died in Florence, Italy. He was the uncle and teacher of the painter Evelyn de Morgan.
Contents
1 Life and career
2 Works
3 References
4 External links
//
Life and career
Stanhope was the son of John Spencer Stanhope of Horsforth and Cannon Hall, MP, a classical antiquarian who in his youth explored Greece. The artist mother was Elizabeth Wilhemina Coke, third and youngest daughter of Thomas William Coke of Norfolk, first Earl of Leicester; she and her sisters had studied art with Thomas Gainsborough.[3] Stanhope had one older brother, Walter, who inherited Cannon Hall, and four sisters, Anna Maria Wilhelmina, Eliza Anne, Anne Alicia, and Louisa Elizabeth.[4] Anna married Percival Pickering and became the mother of Evelyn.[5]
Not inheriting the family estates left Stanhope free to make a commitment to art. While a student at Oxford, he sought out Watts as a teacher and was Watts assistant for some of his architectural paintings.[6] Spencer-Stanhope traveled with Watts to Italy in 1853 and to Asia Minor in 185657. Upon his return, he was invited by Dante Gabriel Rossetti to participate in the Oxford murals project, painting Sir Gawaine and the Damsels.[7]
On 10 January 1859 he married Elizabeth King, the daughter of John James King, granddaughter of the third Earl of Egremont, and the widow of George Frederick Dawson. They settled in Hillhouse, Cawthorne, and had one daughter, Mary, in 1860.[8] That same year, Spencer-Stanhope house Sandroyd (now called Benfleet Hall), near Cobham in Surrey, was commissioned from the architect Philip Webb. Finished by 1861, Sandroyd was only Webb second house, the first having been built for William Morris.[9] The house was designed to accommodate Stanhope work as a painter, with two second-floor studios connected by double doors, a waiting room, and a dressing room for models.[10] The fireplace featured figurative tiles designed by Burne-Jones based on Chaucer dream-vision poem The Legend of Good Women.[11] For a person of Stanhope social standing, the house was considered modest artist dwelling.12] Burne-Jones was a frequent visitor to Sandroyd in the 1860s, and the landscape furnished the background for his painting The Merciful Knight (1964), the design of which Stanhope I Have Trod the Winepress Alone is said to resemble.[13]
The move was intended to offer an improved environment for Stanhope chronic asthma. When his condition was not alleviated, he turned to wintering in Florence. In the summers, he at first stayed at Burne-Jones house in London and later at the Elms, the western half of Little Campden House on Campden Hill, the eastern half of which was occupied by Augustus Egg.[14]
In 1867, at the age of seven, Mary died of scarlet fever and was buried in at the English Cemetery in Florence. Her father designed her headstone.[15]
Though his family accepted his occupation as a painter[16] and took a great interest in art, Evelyn parents disparaged the achievements of oor Roddy and regarded the painters with whom he associated as nconventional.17] Considered among the avant-garde of the 1870s, Stanhope became a regular exhibitor at the Grosvenor Gallery, the alternative to the Royal Academy.[18]
Stanhope moved permanently to Florence in 1880.[19] There he painted the reredos of the English Church, and other work in the Chapel of Marlborough College.[20] In 1873, he bought the Villa Nuti in Florence, where he was visited frequently by de Morgan and where he lived until his death.[21]
De Morgan sister, A.M.W. Stirling, wrote a collection of biographical essays called A Painter of Dreams, including reminiscences of her uncle, he Idealist, the seer of exquisite visions.22] During the 19th and early 20th century, the extended Spencer-Stanhope family included several artists, whose ties were the theme of a 2007 exhibition, Painters of Dreams, part of the 50th anniversary celebration of the opening of Cannon Hall to the public as a museum. Featured were paintings by Stanhope and de Morgan, along with ceramics by her husband, William de Morgan; bronzes by Gertrude Spencer-Stanhope;[23] and the ballroom at Cannon Hall...(and so on)

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