Ionic liquid piston compressor

China Product


Principle

The ionic compressor exploits other gases insolubility in ionic liquids the virtually non-measurable vapor pressures in combination with a large temperature window for the liquid phase. The solubility of hydrogen in ionic liquids is very low. This insolubility is used by using a body of ionic liquid to compress hydrogen up to 450 bar in filling stations; and in so doing they reduced the number of moving parts from about 500 in a conventional piston pump engine down to 8.

Not to be confused with the ion pump or the ionic liquid ring vacuum pump. hyster fork lift

History power pallet truck

After the renewed interest in ionic liquids, research was done by proionic, an enterprise in the spin-off center "ZAT Center for applied Technology" of the University of Leoben. The system was demonstrated at Zemships. yale lift truck

See also

Electrochemical hydrogen compressor

Guided rotor compressor

Hydride compressor

Linear compressor

Timeline of hydrogen technologies

References

^ New developments in pumps and compressors using Ionic Liquids

^ Zemships - Ionic liquid compression

^ Ionic liquid compressor

^ University of Leoben: Spin-off creates innovation for compression of gas

^ Mobility under high pressure Pag-38

^ Construction and design of hydrogen filling stations

Categories: Compressors | Hydrogen technologies

Notre Dame Television

China Product


History

NDtv was started in 2002 by then-student Lance Johnson as a biweekly cable access program known as New Dimension Television. In 2003, NDtv became an official student group and was able to adopt the name Notre Dame Television. In 2004, the program split in two, spawning NDtv News and The Mike Peterson Show, a talk and sketch comedy program. On September 20th, 2006, NDtv went on the air 24 hours on channel 53 as part of the new campus cable system. The number of shows has steadily increased over the years from one to its highest point at 11 in the fall of 2009.

Shows adsl splitter filter

Current Shows bnc patch panel

Late Night ND (Talk and sketch comedy program in season 11; formerly The Mike Peterson Show) cat6 keystone jack

NDtv News (Biweekly campus news and sports program in season 11)

Office Hours (Interview program in season 7)

Dining In (Cooking program in season 3)

Unnecessary Roughness (Debate Show in season 3)

NDtv Abroad (Travelogue of ND abroad programs in season 2, focusing on Dublin)

The Tailgate (Fake news program in season 3)

Sassafras and Shattered Glass (Retellings of traditional tales, in season 1)

Higher Education (Comedic miniseries)

Retired Shows

NDtv Sports (Sports program that was absorbed into NDtv News in its 6th season)

The Final Cut (Movie review program that ran for 3 seasons)

Talk It Out (Debate program that ran for 1 season)

On Campus (Mockumentary sitcom that ran for 5 seasons)

Adam and Steve (Personality-based comedy program that ran for 1 season)

Luck of the Irish (Game show that ran for 1 season)

The Joe Kwaczala Show (Sketch comedy program that ran for 1 season)

Spot On (Comedic miniseries)

HA (Improvisational comedy program that ran for 6 seasons)

Moving Pictures (Cinematic shorts program that ran for 2 seasons)

"NDtv Classic" (Former half hour show that started the organization that is now 'NDtv')

Late Night ND Hosts

The most recognizable show airing on NDtv is Late Night ND, primarily due to its longevity - the show is in its 10th season. When the show premiered in spring of 2005, it was known as The Mike Peterson Show. Often described as the cross-breeding of SNL with Conan, the show allegedly had a cult following and went on to enjoy moderate success. While Peterson was in Chile for a semester in the spring of 2006, the show was hosted by Joe Lattal and referred to as Late Night ND - the name it took again after Peterson's graduation in the spring of 2007. For the fall 2007 semester, the show was hosted by Joe Kwaczala. Elise Yahner, took over in spring of 2007 and hosted until the spring of 2009. Lora O'Shaughnessy hosted in the fall of 2009, and hosting duties are currently shared between Andy Gray and Peter Elliott.

External links

NDtv - Notre Dame Television's Official Site

Categories: University of Notre Dame | Student television stations in the United States

Revolving door syndrome

China Product


Penal system

The term may refer to recidivism; any recurring contact of criminals with the criminal justice system is compared to the operation of a "revolving door". That is, a person who was recently released from a penal institution and is soon caught in further illegal activity is seen as doing a 180-degree turn as in a revolving door.

Political corruption or undue influence floating engineered wood floor

The expression may refer to various forms of corruption or unethical behavior, such as the phenomenon of failed company executives orchestrating a return to the business world, perhaps following criminal misconduct or bankruptcy; or collusion between defence procurement and defence suppliers (see, for example, Military-industrial complex). In American public service, this refers to government workers or elected officials who leave public service to work for the companies they used to regulate, creating a conflict of interest. For example, Boeing received a major contract from the US Air Force, but lost it when officials realized the contract had been negotiated by a USAF employee who left government service to take employment with Boeing as the contract was going into force. Darleen Druyun, the executive in charge of the contract, was fired and sentenced to nine months in jail for corruption and was fined $5,000. Before working for Boeing, she had previously been a civilian employee for the Air Force. She used her position to give Boeing this contract, rigging it to take effect as she left to work for them. In another example, government attorneys at the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) are charged with regulating attorney conduct, though they may be employed previously or subsequently by the same law firm they were supposed to regulate. reclaimed heart pine

In role-playing games kempas hardwood flooring

In role-playing games where resurrection is a simple matter the term "Revolving Door Afterlife" is sometimes used to describe a situation where a character repeatedly dies and gets resurrected.

See also

Revolving Door (television advertisement)

External links

Discussion of movement at the federal level between private industry and the government:http://www.pogo.org/p/contracts/c/co-040101-contractor.html

References

^ Ex-Pentagon procurement executive gets jail time Government Executive magazine, 1 October 2004.

This biographical article relating to law is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

v  d  e

Categories: Human resource management | Business terms | Corruption | Recruitment | Jurist stubs

Milton

China Product


Milton may refer to:

People

People with the surname Milton: scottish fold cats

John Milton (16081674), English poet cat nail clippers

Milton (surname), other people with that surname gluten free dog food

People with the given name Milton:

Milton (given name)

Places

In Australia:

Milton, New South Wales

Milton, Queensland

Milton railway station, Brisbane

In Canada:

Milton, Newfoundland and Labrador

Milton, Nova Scotia in the Region of Queens Municipality

Milton Highlands, Nova Scotia in the Municipality of the District of Yarmouth

Milton, Ontario

Milton GO Station, a railway terminus

In New Zealand:

Milton, New Zealand

In the United Kingdom:

Milton, Angus, a village near Glamis

Milton, Cambridgeshire, a village north of Cambridge

Milton, Cumbria

Milton, Derbyshire, a village in south Derbyshire

Milton, Oxfordshire can refer to:

Milton, Cherwell

Milton, Vale of White Horse

Milton Park, a large business park that stretches between the village and Didcot Power Station

Great Milton

Little Milton, Oxfordshire

Milton-under-Wychwood

Milton United F.C. (Oxon), a football club

Milton, Portsmouth

Milton, Staffordshire

Milton, West Dunbartonshire

Milton, an area of Weston-super-Mare

Milton Hall, an estate near Peterborough, Cambridgeshire

Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire

Milton Malsor, Northamptonshire

Milton Regis, Kent

Milton, Glasgow

Milton, Highland

Milton of Campsie, East Dunbartonshire

New Milton, Hampshire

In the United States:

Milton, California

Milton, Delaware

Milton, Florida

Milton, Georgia

Milton, Illinois

Milton, Indiana

Milton, Iowa

Milton, Kentucky

Milton, Louisiana

Milton, Maine

Milton (Bethesda, Maryland), listed on the NRHP in Maryland

Milton, Massachusetts

Milton, New Hampshire

Milton (town), New York, in Saratoga County

Milton (CDP), Saratoga County, New York, within the town

Milton, Ulster County, New York, a census-designated place and hamlet

Milton, North Carolina

Milton, North Dakota

Milton, Pennsylvania

Milton, Vermont, a town

Milton (village), Vermont, within the town of Milton

Milton, Washington

Milton, West Virginia

Milton, Buffalo County, Wisconsin, a town

Milton, Rock County, Wisconsin, a town

Milton, Wisconsin, a city in Rock County, surrounded by the town

Milton-Freewater, Oregon

Milton Center, Ohio

Milton County, Georgia

Milton Township, Antrim County, Michigan

Milton Township, Cass County, Michigan

Milton Township, Minnesota

Milton Township, Ashland County, Ohio

Milton Township, Wood County, Ohio

New Milton, West Virginia

West Milton, Ohio

Other

Milton: a Poem, an epic poem by William Blake

Milton (opera), by Gaspare Spontini

Office Space (Milton/SNL shorts), series of cartoons for Saturday Night Live and the film Office Space

Milton (horse), a show-jumping horse ridden by John Whitaker

Milton (sterilisation), brand name of sterilising compound for baby bottles

Milton Abbey, Dorset, England - now a private chapel

Milton Academy, a preparatory school in Milton, Massachusetts

Milton College, a former private college in Milton, Wisconsin

Milton High School (Alpharetta, Georgia), high school in northeast Fulton County Georgia

Milton model, the direct reverse set of the Meta model

Milton the Toaster, a former cartoon mascot for Kellogg's Pop-Tarts

Milton rail crash

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.

If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories: Disambiguation pages | Place name disambiguation pagesHidden categories: All article disambiguation pages | All disambiguation pages

Fatty liver

China Product


Causes

Fatty liver is commonly associated with alcohol or metabolic syndrome (diabetes, hypertension, obesity and dyslipidemia) but can also be due to any one of many causes:

Metabolic sonic super ear

Abetalipoproteinemia, glycogen storage diseases, Weber-Christian disease, Wolman disease, acute fatty liver of pregnancy, lipodystrophy ite hearing aid

Nutritional medical disposables

Malnutrition, total parenteral nutrition, severe weight loss, refeeding syndrome, jejuno-ileal bypass, gastric bypass, jejunal diverticulosis with bacterial overgrowth

Drugs and toxins

Amiodarone, methotrexate, diltiazem, highly active antiretroviral therapy, glucocorticoids, tamoxifen, environmental hepatotoxins (e.g., phosphorus, mushroom poisoning)

Other

Inflammatory bowel disease, HIV, Hepatitis C especially genotype 3, and Alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency

Pathology

Micrograph of periportal hepatic steatosis, as may be seen due to steroid use. Trichrome stain.

Fatty change represents the intra-cytoplasmic accumulation of triglyceride (neutral fats). At the beginning, the hepatocytes present small fat vacuoles (liposomes) around the nucleus - microvesicular fatty change. In this stage liver cells are filled with multiple fat droplets that do not displace the centrally located nucleus. In the late stages, the size of the vacuoles increases pushing the nucleus to the periphery of the cell giving characteristic signet ring appearance - macrovesicular fatty change. These vesicles are well delineated and optically "empty" because fats dissolve during tissue processing. Large vacuoles may coalesce, producing fatty cysts - which are irreversible lesions. Macrovesicular steatosis is the most common form and is typically associated with alcohol, diabetes, obesity and corticosteroids. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy and Reye's syndrome are examples of severe liver disease caused by microvesicular fatty change. The diagnosis of steatosis is made when fat in the liver exceeds 510% by weight.

Mechanism leading to hepatic steatosis

Defects in fat metabolism are responsible for pathogenesis of FLD which may be due to imbalance in energy consumption and its combustion resulting in lipid storage or can be a consequence of peripheral resistance to insulin, whereby the transport of fatty acids from adipose tissue to the liver is increased. Impairment or inhibition of receptor molecules (PPAR-, PPAR- and SREBP1) that control the enzymes responsible for the oxidation and synthesis of fatty acids appears to contribute towards fat accumulation. In addition, alcoholism is known to damage mitochondria and other cellular structure further impairing cellular energy mechanism. On the other hand non alcoholic FLD may begin as excess of unmetabolised energy in liver cells. Hepatic steatosis is considered reversible and to some extent nonprogressive if there is cessation or removal of underlying cause.

Micrograph of inflamed fatty liver (steatohepatitis).

Severe fatty liver is sometimes accompanied by inflammation, a situation that is referred to as steatohepatitis. Progression to alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) depend on persistence or severity of inciting cause. Pathological lesions in both conditions are similar. However, the extent of inflammatory response varies widely and does not always correlate with degree of fat accumulation. Steatosis (retention of lipid) and onset of steatohepatitis may represent successive stages in FLD progression.

Liver with extensive inflammation and high degree of steatosis often progresses to more severe forms of the disease. Hepatocyte ballooning and hepatocyte necrosis of varying degree are often present at this stage. Liver cell death and inflammatory responses lead to the activation of stellate cells which play a pivotal role in hepatic fibrosis. The extent of fibrosis varies widely. Perisinusoidal fibrosis is most common, especially in adults, and predominates in zone 3 around the terminal hepatic veins.

The progression to cirrhosis may be influenced by the amount of fat and degree of steatohepatitis and by a variety of other sensitizing factors. In alcoholic FLD the transition to cirrhosis related to continued alcohol consumption is well documented but the process involved in non-alcoholic FLD is less clear.

Diagnosis

Flow chart for diagnosis, modified from

 

 

 

Elevated liver enzyme

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Serology to exclude viral hepatitis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Imaging study showing

fatty infiltrate

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assess alcohol intake

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Less than 2 drinks per day

 

More than 2 drinks per day

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease likely

 

Alcoholic liver disease likely

 

 

Criteria for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease:

consumption of ethanol less than 20g/day for woman and 30g/day for man

Most individuals are asymptomatic and are usually discovered incidentally because of abnormal liver function tests or hepatomegaly noted in unrelated medical condition. Elevated liver biochemistry is found in 50% of patients with simple steatosis. The serum ALT level usually is greater than the AST level in non-alcoholic variant and the opposite in alcoholic FLD ( AST:ALT more than 2:1).

Imaging studies are often obtained during evaluation process. Ultrasonography reveals a "bright" liver with increased echogenicity. Medical imaging can aid in diagnosis of fatty liver; fatty livers have lower density than spleen on computed tomography (CT) and fat appears bright in T1-weighted magnetic resonance images (MRIs). No medical imagery, however, is able to distinguish simple steatosis from advanced NASH. Histological diagnosis by liver biopsy is sought when assessment of severity is indicated.

Treatment and prevention

The treatment of fatty liver depends on what is causing it, and generally, treating the underlying cause will reverse the process of steatosis if implemented at early stage.

Complication

Up to 10% of cirrhotic alcoholic FLD will develop hepatocellular carcinoma. Overall incidence of liver cancer in non-alcoholic FLD has not yet been quantified, but the association is well established.

Epidemiology

The prevalence of FLD in the general population ranges from 10% to 24% in various countries. However, the condition is observed in up to 75% of obese people, 35% of whom will progress to non-alcoholic FLD, despite no evidence of excessive alcohol consumption. FLD is the most common cause of abnormal liver function test in the US. Hispanic-Americans and European-Americans have higher frequencies of unexplained serum aminotransferase elevations than those reported in African-Americans (http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/news/20080925/fatty-liver-disease-genes-affect-risk), but prevalence of FLD among different racial groups is not known.

See also

Steatosis

Steatohepatitis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Metabolic syndrome

Alcoholic liver disease

Cirrhosis

Focal fatty liver

References

^ a b c Reddy JK, Rao MS (2006). "Lipid metabolism and liver inflammation. II. Fatty liver disease and fatty acid oxidation". Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 290 (5): G8528. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00521.2005. PMID 16603729. 

^ a b c Angulo P (2002). "Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease". N. Engl. J. Med. 346 (16): 122131. doi:10.1056/NEJMra011775. PMID 11961152. 

^ a b Bayard M, Holt J, Boroughs E (2006). "Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease". American family physician 73 (11): 19618. PMID 16770927. 

^ Valenti L, Dongiovanni P, Piperno A, Fracanzani AL, Maggioni M, Rametta R, Loria P, Casiraghi MA, Suigo E, Ceriani R, Remondini E, Trombini P, Fargion S. Alpha 1-antitrypsin mutations in NAFLD: high prevalence and association with altered iron metabolism but not with liver damage. Hepatology. 2006 Oct;44(4):857-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17006922

^ Goldman, Lee (2003). Cecil Textbook of Medicine -- 2-Volume Set, Text with Continually Updated Online Reference. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0721645631. 

^ Adams LA, Lymp JF, St Sauver J, Sanderson SO, Lindor KD, Feldstein A, Angulo P (2005). "The natural history of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a population-based cohort study". Gastroenterology 129 (1): 11321. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.04.014. PMID 16012941. 

^ Crabb DW, Galli A, Fischer M, You M (2004). "Molecular mechanisms of alcoholic fatty liver: role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha". Alcohol 34 (1): 358. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.07.005. PMID 15670663. 

^ Medina J, Fernndez-Salazar LI, Garca-Buey L, Moreno-Otero R (2004). "Approach to the pathogenesis and treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis". Diabetes Care 27 (8): 205766. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.8.2057. PMID 15277442. 

^ Day CP, James OF (1998). "Steatohepatitis: a tale of two "hits"?". Gastroenterology 114 (4): 8425. doi:10.1016/S0016-5085(98)70599-2. PMID 9547102. 

^ Gramlich T, Kleiner DE, McCullough AJ, Matteoni CA, Boparai N, Younossi ZM (2004). "Pathologic features associated with fibrosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease". Hum. Pathol. 35 (2): 1969. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2003.09.018. PMID 14991537. 

^ Zafrani ES (2004). "Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: an emerging pathological spectrum". Virchows Arch. 444 (1): 312. doi:10.1007/s00428-003-0943-7. PMID 14685853. 

^ Adams LA, Angulo P, Lindor KD (2005). "Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease". CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne 172 (7): 899905. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045232. PMID 15795412. 

^ Sleisenger, Marvin (2006). Sleisenger and Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 1416002456. 

^ Qian Y, Fan JG (2005). "Obesity, fatty liver and liver cancer". HBPD INT 4 (2): 1737. PMID 15908310. 

^ Hamaguchi M, Kojima T, Takeda N, Nakagawa T, Taniguchi H, Fujii K, Omatsu T, Nakajima T, Sarui H, Shimazaki M, Kato T, Okuda J, Ida K (2005). "The metabolic syndrome as a predictor of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease". Ann. Intern. Med. 143 (10): 7228. PMID 16287793. 

External links

Fatty liver - underlying medical causes, symptoms, diagnosis and other details

American Association for the Study of Liver Disease

American Liver Foundation

00474 at CHORUS

Photo at Atlas of Pathology

v  d  e

Digestive system  Digestive disease  Gastroenterology (primarily K2093, 530579)

Upper GI tract

Esophagus

Esophagitis (Candidal)  rupture (Boerhaave syndrome, Mallory-Weiss syndrome)  UES (Zenker's diverticulum)  LES (Barrett's esophagus)  Esophageal motility disorder (Nutcracker esophagus, Achalasia, Diffuse esophageal spasm, GERD)  Esophageal stricture  Megaesophagus

Stomach

Gastritis (Atrophic, Mntrier's disease, Gastroenteritis)  Peptic (gastric) ulcer (Cushing ulcer, Dieulafoy's lesion)  Dyspepsia  Pyloric stenosis  Achlorhydria  Gastroparesis  Gastroptosis  Portal hypertensive gastropathy  Gastric antral vascular ectasia  Gastric dumping syndrome  Gastric volvulus

Lower GI tract:

Intestinal/

enteropathy

Small intestine/

(duodenum/jejunum/ileum)

Enteritis (Duodenitis, Jejunitis, Ileitis)  Peptic (duodenal) ulcer (Curling's ulcer)  Malabsorption: Coeliac  Tropical sprue  Blind loop syndrome  Whipple's  Short bowel syndrome  Steatorrhea  Milroy disease

Large intestine

(appendix/colon)

Appendicitis  Colitis (Pseudomembranous, Ulcerative, Ischemic, Microscopic, Collagenous, Lymphocytic)  Functional colonic disease (IBS, Intestinal pseudoobstruction/Ogilvie syndrome)  Megacolon/Toxic megacolon  Diverticulitis/Diverticulosis

Large and/or small

Enterocolitis (Necrotizing)  IBD (Crohn's disease)  vascular: Abdominal angina  Mesenteric ischemia  Angiodysplasia  Bowel obstruction: Ileus  Intussusception  Volvulus  Fecal impaction  Constipation  Diarrhea (Infectious)

Rectum

Proctitis (Radiation proctitis)  Proctalgia fugax  Rectal prolapse

Anus

Anal fissure/Anal fistula  Anal abscess   Anal dysplasia   Pruritus ani

GI bleeding/BIS

Upper (Hematemesis, Melena)  Lower (Hematochezia)

Accessory

Liver

Hepatitis (Viral hepatitis, Autoimmune hepatitis, Alcoholic hepatitis)  Cirrhosis (PBC)  Fatty liver (NASH)  vascular (Hepatic veno-occlusive disease, Portal hypertension, Nutmeg liver)  Alcoholic liver disease  Liver failure (Hepatic encephalopathy, Acute liver failure)  Liver abscess (Pyogenic, Amoebic)  Hepatorenal syndrome  Peliosis hepatis

Gallbladder

Cholecystitis  Gallstones/Cholecystolithiasis  Cholesterolosis  Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses  Postcholecystectomy syndrome  Porcelain gallbladder

Bile duct/

other biliary tree

Cholangitis (PSC, Secondary sclerosing cholangitis, Ascending)  Cholestasis/Mirizzi's syndrome  Biliary fistula  Haemobilia  Gallstones/Cholelithiasis

common bile duct (Choledocholithiasis, Biliary dyskinesia)  Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction

Pancreatic

Pancreatitis (Acute, Chronic, Hereditary)  Pancreatic pseudocyst  Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency  Pancreatic fistula

Abdominopelvic

Hernia

Diaphragmatic: Congenital diaphragmatic  Hiatus  Abdominal hernia: Inguinal (Indirect, Direct)  Umbilical  Incisional  Femoral  Obturator hernia  Spigelian hernia  Internal hernia

Peritoneal

Peritonitis (Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis)  Hemoperitoneum  Pneumoperitoneum

digestive system navs: anat of tract,glands,perit,diaphragm/physio/dev, noncongen/congen/congen of d+w/neoplasia, symptoms+signs/eponymous, proc

Categories: Hepatology | Medical conditions related to obesity | HistopathologyHidden categories: Articles to be merged from January 2008 | All articles to be merged

Charvel

China Product


History

In November 1978, Wayne Charvel sold the company to Grover Jackson. Wayne left the company soon after and ceased to have any real association with the brand name from this point on.

In 1980, Grover was introduced to Randy Rhoads. They began to develop a guitar designed by Randy himself. The initial version was not angular enough for Randy but the second try yielded what Randy called the "Concorde". Grover was worried the radically styled and neck-through guitar was too different from Charvel models so he decided to put his own name on the headstock, just in case the model failed. It later became the "Rhoads Model". This guitar was the impetus that inspired Grover to start Jackson Guitars. Both brands were manufactured in the Glendora location up until 1986 and then in Ontario, California. antique gas pump

In 1989 Grover sold Jackson/Charvel to the Japanese manufacturer AMIC. The Charvel guitars were produced exclusively in Japan to a very high standard from 1986 to 1991. The Model 4 and Model 6 (both featuring active electronics) variants were the most popular. state quarter holder

Charvel Model 4 silver one dollar coin

The Japanese Charvel Model 4 (featuring the Fort Worth neckplate), in particular, is considered one of the best imported guitars ever made. It has a full size Stratocaster-style body made of American Basswood, a 22 fret maple neck with rosewood fretboard and sharkfin inlays in Mother of Pearl. There was a version with maple fretboard and black dot inlays that was called the Model 4M.

The Model 4 appeared in 1986, featuring the Kahler 2300 tremolo. It's a hot item on Ebay and can be seen on various YouTube videos, which demonstrate its incredible sound quality. As opposed to a Floyd Rose tremolo system, tuning stability is an issue with the Kahler tremolo, mainly because of problems related to Kahler's behind-the-nut locking nut. After 1986, the Model 4 came equipped with a licensed Floyd Rose style tremolo (Jackson JT-6). Those also had some tuning issues, although very slightly, on the first two strings.[citation needed]

Charvel Model 6

The Japan-made Charvel Model 6 was one of the highest quality import Charvels ever made. It was in fact the first import version of the Jackson Soloist, but under the Charvel brand.

The Model 6 is a neck-through construction with a maple neck and poplar body. The neck has 24 jumbo frets on a bound rosewood fretboard. The Model 6 became popular for its bound neck/headstock, and "sharkfin" fingerboard position inlays in real Mother of Pearl. The Model 6s came with Kahler 2300 Tremolos in 1986, as well as an extra thin neck profile. The tremolo was later replaced with a non-recessed JT-6 licensed Floyd, and the neck profile became a little beefier. The pickups were a Jackson J50BC humbucker at the bridge, and two Jackson J-200 stacked singlecoils, and it had an on-board mid-boost (Jackson JE-1200). The control layout consists of a Volume knob, a Tone knob, a knob for the mid boost, and three mini toggles to switch each of the pickups on and off.

It is worth noting that Soloists with non-recessed tremolos are extremely rare, making the Model 6 very desirable for those that prefer a taller bridge and an angled neck.

Charvel 750XL

One of the finest import Charvel guitars ever made was the 750XL. Being offered for only one production year (1989), they are extremely rare and sought after. The 750XL was constructed with an arched maple cap, mahogany body and a set neck (maple). It was offered with both a licensed Floyd and a fixed bridge, of which the latter is more rare. The neck was a 24.75" short scale length (Gibson style).

This guitar also belonged to one of the great music directors in Greece Senor Johnny Elliott, originally born in Chicago Illinois. The guitar was used by Shawn Lane throughout his career.

According to the Charvel catalogue:

750XL - Mahogany set neck construction with arched tops make the 750XL a sonic knockout. Capable of the traditional sustaining roars associated with set neck mahogany instruments, this guitar also offers today's brighter tones. Inverse Jackson inlays and bound rosewood fingerboard and matching headstock accent the 750XL's appearance.

Finish options: Snow White, Pearl Blue, Turquoise, Magenta, Platinum, Desert Crackle, Metallic Black. Finish options for flamed tops: Cherry Sunburst, Transparent Red, Transparent Amber, Transparent Purple.

List price: $1169.95 - 1395.00 (figured wood)

Neck: 24.750" Gibson short scale, maple set neck, 24 jumbo frets, bound rosewood compound radius fingerboard, inverse Mother of Pearl Jackson inlays (sharkfins).

Body: Mahogany body with maple arched top. Sources have suggested that the solid colours used Basswood or Alder.

Bridge: Either String-Thru JT-390 (more rare) or Tremolo: JT-590 non-recessed (Schaller), stamped "Jackson" or "Charvel".

Pickups: Twin Humbuckers: J-80C bridge / J-80C neck or J-80C bridge / J50B neck or J50C bridge / J50B neck.

Layout: 1 volume, 1 tone, Jackson 5-way super switch.

Hardware: Black.

Other Models

In 1989 the line up of guitars was revamped into a number of different series, the Classic, Fusion and Contemporary Series among them. Guitars in the Classic series included the 275, 375, 375 deluxe and 475. The fusion series had shorter scale necks than the others and included the Fusion deluxe and Fusion custom models. The contemporary range included the Predator and Spectrum models. The Spectrum guitar was inspired by a custom Jackson guitar built for Jeff Beck. This unusual instrument was based on a Stratocaster shaped body but with reverse pointy drooped headstock, an early 50's Fender P-Bass-inspired pickguard, wild colors and an active tone circuit. Most of the guitars at the time were equipped with Schaller made hardware including a licensed Floyd Rose locking tremolo. The Korean-made Charvette brand was also produced to cover the lower end of the market at this time.

As the 90s progressed the brand fell from favor due to changes in music fashion and a drop in quality as the Charvel name was applied to lower quality budget instruments.

In more recent years various attempts have been made to revive the brand with higher quality Japanese and American made models such as the Journeyman. The original USA manufactured Charvels are some of the most desirable and sought-after guitars in the world today.

Gibson WRC

Wayne Charvel made a namesake model offering through Gibson, the "Gibson W.R.C. Signature Model" - of which only a limited number were made, but this saw little recognition and was short-lived due mainly to a lawsuit filed by Jackson. The Gibson W.R.C. models were made from 19871988 and came in three standard colors: Red, black, and white. There are 200 of these guitars called "show case" models that actually have Wayne Charvel's signature on the bell. (He actually signed each one of them and they came with a letter.) Some people claim there were only 200 of the WRC guitars made overall but that's not true. The "200 guitars" were the ones that Wayne Charvel autographed by initialing the Gibson bell.

The WRC model came with a "faux leather case" that was tan in color and had a hot pink interior and combination locks. The earlier models had a Kahler "Spyder" tremolo and the later models had an actual Floyd Rose. All of the models were well made and had a maple neck (bolt on) with an ebony finger board.

Charvel Today

Charvel/Jackson was bought by Fender in 2002, and the Charvel name saw a rebirth with several U.S. made "San Dimas" modelso-named in order to recapture the original association of the Charvel name to high-quality, American-made professional guitars.

Charvel now offers several models, American made and boutique priced, featuring an Eddie Van Halen signature model - a short run of which are actually paint stencilled by Eddie himself.

Sometime in the late '90's Wayne Charvel himself began offering hand-made guitars from his new Northern California shop, under the name Wayne Guitars.

Charvel Models

USA Made

Charvel San Dimas Strat

Charvel San Dimas Star

Charvel San Dimas Telecaster

Charvel San Dimas Explorer

Japanese Made

Charvel Model 1 (single humbucker) / Model 1A (pickguard, 3 singlecoils)

Charvel Model 2

Charvel Model 3 (H-S-S) / Model 3A (H-H)

Charvel Model 4 / Model 4A / Model 4M (maple neck w. black dot inlays)

Charvel Model 5 (H-H) / Model 5A (single humbucker) / Model 5FX (Humbucker + slanted Singlecoil)

Charvel Model 6

Charvel Model 7 (Telecaster body shape, later became the "Charvel Legend")

Charvel Model 8 (Extremely rare, produced only in 1988. Precursor to the Charvel Spectrum, featuring a "Guitar" logo and Jackson JT6 tremolo rather than the later Spectrum model's "Toothpaste" logo and Schaller bridge).

Charvel Classic Series

Charvel Fusion Series

Charvel Contemporary Series

Charvel Model 88 (1988 only)

Basses

Charvel Model 1B

Charvel Model 2B

Charvel Model 3B

Korean Made

Charvette

Charvel players

Eddie Van Halen

Jesse Pintado

Warren DeMartini

Jake E. Lee

Vivian Campbell

Eddie Ojeda

Richie Sambora

George Lynch

Steve Vai

Neal Schon

Criss Oliva

Steve Stevens

Gary Moore

Mark Kendall

Allan Holdsworth

Rowan Robertson

Steve Lynch

Vinnie Vincent

Jim Root

Billy Gibbons

Graeme Dougal

Oz Fox

Shawn Lane

Patrick Mameli

James Murphy

Christian Muenzner

References

^ this model remains one of Jackson's top sellers

^ Important note: Neckplates on the bolt-on Japanese Charvel models contain The Fort Worth, Texas address of IMC. These were manufactured in Japan, NOT USA.

^ referred to as San Dimas after the PO Box on the neckplates

External links

Charvel Guitars and Basses

USA Charvels, a complete Charvel web experience. Featuring one of the worlds largest USA Charvel collections spanning the preproduction era to current. Also contains useful ID sections, detailed photos of most guitars inside and out, topped off with a forum you can join to ask any questions you may have, or to get involved in the Charvel community.

www.charvels.com A Charvels fansite.

www.sandimascharvel.com A collector's fansite dedicated to original San Dimas Charvel guitars.

Categories: Guitar manufacturing companiesHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2008

Street skateboarding

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The golden age of street skateboarding: mid-1980s

In the early 1980s, skateboarding was almost dead.[citation needed] At this time, the title 'professional skateboarder' was little more than a formality, and no pro could make a living through the sport alone. Not surprisingly, all contests, demonstrations, videos, and companies were underground, and far from mainstream. Vertical Skateboarding (aka, 'vert') dominated the professional scene and the magazines that covered it. However, it was at this time that upstarts such as Mark Gonzales (also known as 'the Gonz'), Natas Kaupas, and other top skaters in and around Los Angeles began to get creative with variations of vert and freestyle tricks on public terrain. The first "streetstyle" contest was held at San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1983, and Tommy Guerrero won an upset victory as an unsponsored amateur. Guerrero, from San Francisco, also got the first, true, street skating part in a video, in 1985's "Future Primitive" by Powell Peralta. This video part coincided with a boom in skateboarding's popularity, and was a defining moment in influencing a new generation to street skateboarding.

Street skateboarding in magazines pre built cabins

Magazines throughout the 1970s and early 1980s were dominated by vert skating and to a lesser extent freestyle skateboarding. 1984 is seen as something of a watershed in street skateboarding's history as Tommy Guerrero made the July cover, Natas Kaupas made the September, and Mark Gonzales made the November cover of Thrasher magazine. This level of exposure was unprecedented for street skating and marks the birth of the golden age of street skating. service apartment shanghai

The impact of a new medium - videocassettes highland house furniture

Just as VCR's were being purchased as the latest luxury item, the skateboard video revolution began in late 1984 with the release of Powell Peralta's "Bones Brigade Video Show". In it, street skating serves as just the backdrop of the videos various vert and freestyle parts as Lance Mountain cruises around Los Angeles, doing little more than bonelesses and acid drops, but the video itself helped skateboarding make a comeback. By 1985, both street skating and skateboarding's popularity was making a resurgence[citation needed]. Overnight, street skating eclipsed freestyle in popularity, though vert remained the preeminent form that got most of the attention. Photos of street skaters like Mark Gonzales, Natas Kaupas and Johnee Kop were seen fairly often, but this emerging form of skating was still not taken seriously by most and considered a fad. Up through 1987, most street skaters did mostly handplant and kicker ramp tricks. Just one year later the dynamic began shifting dramatically. The release of Powell Peralta's "Public Domain" and H Street's "Shackle Me Not" videos were an eye-opener for the skateboard world. In them, a new generation of street skaters led by Mike Vallely, Ray Barbee, and Matt Hensley departed from the handplant and jump ramp trends to progress street skating to a respectable level with major ollies, handrail boardslides and freestyle flip maneuvers. This was the point of no return where street skating began to progress at an extraordinary pace through the early 1990s, while vert's popularity waned rapidly.

Street skateboarding takes over: the early 1990s

During the early 1990s, vertical skating nearly disappeared, and street skating was the dominant style practiced by successful professional riders[citation needed]. The mainstream popularity of skateboarding began to decline once again during the early 1990s. By 1993, the sports popularity was at an all time low point. But during this period, hardcore skaters continued to practice in any way they could, just as they had following the skatepark crash of the late 1970s. A strong foundation for street skating had been established from the mid to late 1980s, to the point where dozens of pros were known almost exclusively for their performance on the streets. Now, it was possible for pros to build upon that foundation, and take skateboarding to new levels. Young street professionals such as Frankie Hill and Ed Templeton had borrowed from freestyle, but also continued to push the limits of handrail skating. Plan B's 1992 production, The Questionable Video features some of the best skaters of the era, including a young Pat Duffy, who was then known as a "handrail destroyer"[citation needed].

Little flips and small wheels

Street skateboarding in the early 1990s looked nothing like that which was performed even a few years earlier in the late 1980s. Riders now rode both in normal and switch stance and would perform flip tricks and ollie variations that were mostly invented in the 1980s by world champion freestyler Rodney Mullen. Mullen himself became a street skater during this period, due to the death of freestyle. Most of the tricks that were once street staples such as the streetplant and boneless as well as any trick that involved picking a board up from the ground, were now considered clich. Grace and speed were not encouraged in street skating at this time, and it was not uncommon for a rider to stumble off his board momentarily after landing an extremely technical flip trick. Another peculiarity of street skating in the early 1990s were the tiny wheels that were preferred as a light weight solution for flip tricks from 1991 to 1994. Such wheels were often smaller than 45 millimetres, some of which at their lowest point in 1993 were reduced to a tiny, nearly compression bearing size of just 38 millimetres.

Street skateboarding goes mainstream: 1995-2001

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2006)

The skateboarding industry experienced major growth starting in the mid 1990s, and many factors are to thank for this. The global recession that had affected so many during the decade's early years was coming to an end, which generally meant more disposable income for young people[citation needed]. As a result, more time and money could be invested into adolescent pastimes. Skateboarding related culture was becoming much more popular and visible mainstream media. Pop punk bands such as The Offspring, Rancid, NOFX, and Green Day began to sell millions of records in 1994, and this introduced many people to the "alternative" lifestyle, which included skateboarding[citation needed]. Although the mainstream has brought in money, many skateboarders feel that the mainstream has tainted skateboarding as a whole[citation needed]. Wanting to 'cash in' on a wealthy demographic, ESPN introduced the Extreme Games (later renamed the X-Games) in the summer of 1995. The games showcased skateboarding as well as other activities such as rollerblading, BMX biking, motocross. The X-Games initially hosted two skateboarding contests: a vert contest and a "street" contest held on a course constructed of a mix of rails, ramps, and banks. Accordingly, the X-Games played a major role in familiarizing the mainstream population onto the sport. The X-Games and other large scale contests created increasing polarization professional the professional skateboarding community. While there was some cross over between professional riders, most skaters chose to either seek coverage through industry sources (such as Transworld Skateboarding Magazine, Thrasher), and company videos or participate in the contest circuit.

Influential videos

Like no other time before it, the period between the mid 1990s and the early 21st century saw an incredible amount of influence originating in promotional videos released directly by skate companies themselves. Whereas skate demos and competitions continued to maintain their important role that had been established in previous skate eras, many professional skaters now focused the majority of their attention on videos, and the tricks being performed in those videos. Skate videos in the mid 1990s were almost exclusively street based, with absolutely no freestyle, and very little vert to mention. Some videos, such as Girl Skateboards' Mouse (1996) directed by Spike Jonze, and World Industries' Rodney Mullen vs. Daewon Song (1997) followed the tradition of technical flatground skateboarding that had been spawned from the ashes of freestyle in the early 1990s. Tricks were executed faster and with more power. The boundaries of switch stance skating were being pushed and many skaters appeared equally competent in both their regular and switch stance. Others videos, such as Toy Machine's Welcome to Hell (1996), and Zero Skateboards's Thrill of it All (1996), represented the direction that street skating took in the late 1990s towards high impact stair and handrail skating.

Stairs and rails

Handrail skating originated in California in the spring of 1986[citation needed]. Although it is generally accepted that Mark Gonzales is the first to skate a handrail, it's also acknowledged that Natas Kaupas skated a handrail at this time too. Johnee Kop was the first to have a published handrail photo. Also, Julian Stranger was the first to do a frontside boardslide and have a published photo. Handrail skating continued to come into its own for the rest of the '80s, from more veteran pros like Chris Miller and Steve Caballero to then upstarts Andy Howell, Ed Templeton, and Frankie Hill. By 1990, the first kickflip boardslide on a handrail was performed. Handrail skating became much more common throughout the 1990s as it was further pushed into the limelight in by Pat Duffy's landmark part in the Plan B "Questionable Video" in 1992. By 1995 kickflip and shove-it variations were being 'thrown down' on a regular basis by advanced pros like Heath Kirchart who is responsible for the first kickflip backside lipslide on a handrail. Similarly, technical flip tricks were being taken down larger and larger stair sets. Handrail skating became so common in the mid-1990s that 1995 was actually declared the year of the 50-50 grind by Transworld Skateboarding Magazine due to the number of grinds that were being performed on rails at this time.

Handrail domination

In the late 1990s and early 21st century, handrail skating became a professional standard as well as a proving ground for young and up and coming skaters. Not only were rails a staple in pro street skating, but also in competitions and demonstrations. Indeed, for some time it seemed the larger the rail, and the bigger the stair set, the better. Some young skaters were able to capture attention from the industry though getting a trick on a notorious set such as El Toro, Wallenberg, and Wiltshire. Despite the strong interest in skate large stair sets, many skateboards still focused on extremely technical grinds and manuals. In the last few years, skating handrails has remained an important part of professional street skating, but is not as essential to a video part as it once was.

Street skateboarding today: 2001-Present

The skateboarding industry has now grown and flourished for nearly ten years without experiencing a major recession like those seen by previous skate generations (although minor financial losses were reported by several companies in the year 2003)[citation needed]. During the last 5 years, skateboarding has taken many interesting turns. Skateparks, which were a scarce commodity in the mid 1990s, are now present in both small and large communities throughout North America and Europe. Moreover, a significant number of female participants can be reported in a sport that has been largely male dominated throughout the course of its history. While hand rails and large stair sets are still widely popular, it is now obvious that other approaches are being taken by pros and amateurs alike. Recently, a number of professional street skaters have been seen performing old-school tricks (such as wallrides, bonelesses, no-complys and airwalks) in line with 1990s style flip tricks[citation needed], i.e. Jason Adams' part in Black Label's 2003 video Black Out. Recently, professional skateboarders have taken to skating different obstacles than in the late 1990s/early 2000s.[citation needed] While traditional ledges, rails, stairs, and gaps are still popular, there has been a recent push to skate more unusual terrain. Random banks and oddly shaped structures have become the canvas for street skaters to perform their art.

With the expansion of the skateboard industry, skate videos have become much larger productions. Videos like S Footwear's Menikmati in 2000, Adio Footwear's One Step Beyond in 2001, and Flip Skateboards' Sorry in 2002 are early examples of the production and process of creating a professional skate video in this era. Often these videos are filmed for over the course of a several years, feature a big budget, and contain skating spots from all over the world. Skits have long been a part of skate videos, however current big budget examples can be seen in Nike Skateboarding's Nothing But the Truth in 2007 and Lakai Limited Footwear's Fully Flared in 2007. Ty Evans, the producer of Fully Flared, is often credited for ushering in the new aesthetic of skate videos this decade. Krooked's Gnar Ganr in 2008 featured low film quality and loose editing and can be seen as reaction to the current trends of skate videos. Although, more recently, these big budget productions are becoming less common with large amounts of skate videos being downloaded or watched over the internet. An example of a smaller budget film in reaction to this process is Zero's Strange World in 2010, which wasn't filmed for many years, featured more traveling around the U.S. instead of the world, was much shorter (about 30 minutes) and was sold for a cheap price ($10-15) to try and maximize the amount of people who bought instead of downloaded the video.

References

External links

iSKATEhere.com An online directory of street skating spots

v  d  e

Skateboarding

Skateboard Types

Skateboard  Longboard  Fingerboard  Street luge  Caster board  Snakeboard

Tricks

Ollie  Flip tricks  Aerials  Grabs  Grinds  Slides  Lip tricks  Freestyle  Pole jam

Other

Skateboarding terms  Skateboarders / Female skateboarders  Skateboarding brands  Skateboarding sponsorship  Skateboarding styles  Skateboard shoes

Skateparks

A-Park  Area 51 (skatepark)  Athens Skate Park  Brook Run Skate Park  Burnside Skatepark  Hubba Hideout  Mellowpark  Skatopia  West Side Skatepark

Categories: Skateboarding | Street culture | Children's street cultureHidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from May 2009 | Articles that may contain original research from July 2008 | All articles that may contain original research | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008 | Articles needing additional references from October 2006 | All articles needing additional references | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007

Lian

China Product






Look up lian, lin, lin, lin, or lin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. closet shoe storage

Lian may refer to: shoe storage solutions

Gao Lian (Water Margin), a character in the Water Margin series of novels hanging shoe storage

Jia Lian, a character in the novel Dream of the Red Chamber

Lian, Batangas, Philippines

Lian, Norway

Lian (given name), a given name

Lian (station), the terminus of Grkallbanen

Lian (surname), a surname

Lian Ensemble, a Persian classical music ensemble

See also

Chuu-Lian

Kim-Lian

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.

If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan

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Early history

Oil refinery in Baku in the early 20th century.

There is evidence of petroleum being used in trade as early as the third and fourth centuries. Information on the production of oil on the Apsheron peninsula can be found in the manuscripts of most Arabic and Persian authors. pneumatic fitting

The following paragraph from the accounts of the famous traveller Marco Polo is believed to be a reference to Baku oil: "Near the Georgian border there is a spring from which gushes a stream of oil, in such abundance that a hundred ships may load there at once. This oil is not good to eat; but it is good for burning and as a salve for men and camels affected with itch or scab. Men come from a long distance to fetch this oil, and in all the neighbourhood no other oil is burnt but this." puma air compressor

historical production atlas copco parts

The Turkish scientist and traveller of the second part of the 17th century, Evliya elebi, reported that "the Baku fortress was surrounded by 500 wells, from which white and black acid refined oil was produced".

The first detailed description of the Baku oil industry was made by E. Kempfer, Secretary of the Swedish Embassy to Persia (Iran) in 1683.

In his notes he confirms the existence of places where natural gas discharges to the surface. Kempfer describes "flaming steppe" as follows: it "constitutes a peculiar and wonderful sight, for some of the fissures were blazing with big, others with quite flame and was allowing everybody to come up; thirds emitted smoke or at any case minimum perceptible evaporation that was sending off heavy and stinking taste of oil. It was occupying the territory of 88 steps in length and 26 in width."[citation needed](improved translation needed)

Many 18th and 19th century European accounts of the Caucasus refer to the Fire Temple of Baku at Surakhany, where the fire was fed by natural gas from a cavern beneath the site.

Pre-industrial period

One of the earliest oil fields was established in Baku.

In 1806 the Russian empire occupied Baku Khanate and took monopolistic control of oil production. Later exclusive rights to produce oil were given to individuals, thereby creating the otkupchina lease system.

Oil extraction methods in those times were very primitive  mainly hand dug wells, drilled to very shallow depths. The production volume of those years can be judged from data provided in 1842 by the Caspian Chamber of the Department of State Property Ministry. It refers to 136 wells around Absheron, which produced 3.76 thousand (what unit?) oil annually (about 64 bopd), and this oil was exported to Persia, where it was used in lighting as well as a source for ointments and other traditional remedies.

As a result of otkupschina monopoly and the absence of growing demand, annual oil production in the first half of XIX century remained unchanged at 250300 poods (45 thousand tons). In 1813, the number of producing wells was 116, then 125 in 1825, 120 in 1850, and only 218 in 1860. Otkupschina system meant that oil production was monopolized by set of individuals who saw no incentive to increase production or improve drilling methods.

In 1846, under the supervision of state advisor V.N. Semyonov engineer Alekseev drilled a 21 m deep well using a primitive percussion drilling mechanism, in Bibi-Heybat to explore for oil, with positive results. More than a decade later, on August 27, 1859, "Colonel" Edwin L. Drake struck oil on American soil for the first time.

A small petrochemical industry sprung up around Baku, as demand for kerosene soared locally. Vasily Kokarev, Peter Gubonin and German baron N.E. Tornow built the first kerosene factory in Surakhany. The factory was used to produce kerosene out of "kir", an asphalt-like substance. In 1859 N.I. Vitte, a Tiflis pharmacist, built the second paraffin-producing factory on Pirallahi island.

First oil boom

The Nobel Brothers' oil wells in Balakhani, a suburb of Baku.

In 1871 Mirzoyev, then an otkupchina monopolist, built the first wooden oil derrick followed by another the next year. Drilling was conducted primitively with a balance arm, whim and manual pump.

In the early 1870s the otkupschina system was abolished and oil lands were parcelled out under an 1872 auction to local and Russian-born investors. In Balakhani more than 149 parcels of land were sold with other parcels being in Surakhani, Bibi-Heybet and Binagady. This year marked the beginning of oil drilling on a massive scale. On 13th of June 1872 the largest oil gusher  "Vermishevsky"  blew on Balakhany field ". Within three months, it had produced 90 million poods (averaging 2,600 barrels (410 m3) of oil per day). By 1878 Bibi-Heybat field had its first oil gusher.

As a result there was flurry of financial activity and various bank societies and organization were created. In 1884, the oil barons in Baku established their own organization, the Oil Extractors Congress Council for the discussion of oil business. They created their own magazine, Neftyanoe Delo (Oil Business), a library, school, hospital, and pharmacy. For six years, the Council of Oil Extractors Congress was directed by Ludvig Nobel.

The oil industry greatly influenced the architectural appearance of Baku as a modern city. Administrative, social and municipal institutions were established which, in turn, made decisions about the city's illumination, roads, streets, buildings, telephone stations, and horse-drawn trolleys. Gardens and parks were laid out and hotels, casinos and beautiful stores were built.

First, exclusive rights to develop Baku oil fields were in the hands of Russian-registered businesses, and only in 1898 foreign companies were granted rights to explore and develop oil fields as well as to participate in annual bidding process. Between 1898 and 1903 British oil firms invested 60 mln rubles in Baku oil fields.

Oil production

The main oil-producing regions were located near Baku at Sabunchy, Surakhany and Bibi-Heybat. Until the beginning of the 20th century, the Sabunchi region was producing 35 percent of Baku's oil, and the Bibi-Heybat region produced 28 percent, followed by the Ramany and the Balakhany regions. Blowout oil gushers made up the main portion of all oil production in the early days although this was a very uneconomical and environmentally harmful process. However, blowout production decreased as the equipment was improved. In 1887 blowouts accounted for 42 percent of the recovered oil, but in 1890 it had decreased to 10.5 percent.

In oil industry of pre-revolutionary Russia foreign capital dominated the sector. On the eve of the World War One three companies ("Russian General Oil Company", "Royal Dutch Shell" and "Partnership of Nobel Brothers.") held 86% of all share capitals and controlled 60% of oil production. In 1903, 12 English companies with capital equaling to 60 mln. rubles were functioning in Baku region. In 1912, Anglo-Dutch firm "Shell" obtained 80% shares of Caspian-Black Sea Society "Mazut", which had belonged to Rothschild Banking-house. Other British firms purchased oil operations from Hajji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev.

In 1898, the Russian oil industry exceeded the U.S. oil production level. At that time, approximately 8 million tons were being produced (160 thousand barrels of oil per day). By 1901, Baku produced more than half of the world's oil (11 million tons or 212,000 barrels (33,700 m3) of oil per day), and 95 percent of all Russian oil. Approximately 1.2 million tons of Baku kerosene were also sold abroad.

Local oil barons and foreign oil companies

A painting of Zeynalabdin Taghiyev.

Branobel Operating Company  largest single oil producer in Azerbaijan at 25,000 bop/d in 1914. Largest refiner and transporter of oil, as well as retailer of kerosene in Europe. Markets of France, Turkey, Greece and Germany were fully supplied by Nobel-produced kerosene and other products.

De Rothschild Frres  trading and shipping in association with Shell. Possessed largest tanker fleet in the Caspian after Nobels.

Royal Dutch Shell  Shell acted through following associated companies: the Caspian Black Sea Society, Caucasus, S.M. Shibayev, and Co. Shell-led consortium produced a fifth of Russian output up to 1914. Royal Dutch Shell's output from the Baku oil fields was 15,000 boppd in 1914.

Zeynalabdin Taghiyev  oil, textiles and fishing. His firm was producing 1900 bopd in 1887 and occupied 4th place in refining business "

Aga Musa Nagiyev  oil and real estate. He was the second-largest oil producer and largest native producer

Murtuza Mukhtarov  oil drilling services.

Shamsi Asadullayev  oil shipping, largest native industrialist.

James Vishau and Anglo-Russian Oil Company

Trade House Benkendorf and Co  oil production.

The Russian Oil General Corporation   established in London in 1912 by the most important Russian and foreign banks, united 20 companies. These included A.I. Mantashev & Co., G.M. Lianosov & Sons, Adamov and sonsMoscow-Caucasus Trade Company, Caspian Partnership, Russian Petroleum Society, Absheron Petroleum Society and others. This agglomeration produced more than 30% of Russian oil by 1916.

Distribution of Russian Oil Producers in 1900-13.

There were other entrepreneurs with lower rank who also made contributions to industrial development of Azerbaijan, such as Haji Baba Alekperov, Agasibek Ashurbeyov, Ali Bala Zarbaliyev, Kerboloy Zarbaliyev, Huseyin Melikov, G. Bagirov, G. Aliyev, S. Zminov, Amir-Aslanov brothers and others were owners of oil-field areas in Sabunchi, Balakhani, Romani, Shubani, Bibi-Heybet.

primitive drilling practices

Subsurface and drilling

By late 1890s large companies started to employ geologists to describe and map prospective structures. Geologist and oil specialist Dmitry Golubyatnikov began a systematic investigation of Absheron and predicted the availability of oil deposits in Surakhany field. In 1901, Pirallahy oil field was discovered and put on production. Scientists like Ivan Gubkin, Golubyatnikov and Uskin described the productive series deposits of Azerbaijan and the process generation for the first time in 1916.

By early 20th century innovation started to improve hitherto backward well drilling practices. Most of the wells up to that time were drilled by cable-tool drilling method, which limited the exploitation to shallow depth.

Qualified engineers (of which Fatulla Rustambeyov is the first Azeri national) contributed to the improvement of well designs. By early 1913 the following changes occurred in some of largest producers such as Branobel.

Transition from percussion cable-tool drilling to rotary drilling using electrical drive.

Use of thread line casing pipe instead of valve strings during drilling.

Replacement of wooden derricks with metal ones.

The process of gaslift was tested for the first time in 1915 in Ramani field.

The compression during transportation of oil and gas was introduced in 1911.

Storage and transportation

Old Baku.

In 1858, one of the major shipping companies on the Caspian Sea  joint-stock company "Kavkaz and Merkuriy" was established and served as the first oil shipping outlet.

Great changes were introduced in the area of oil storage by Nobels. To counteract the waste of the ground pits, vessels and lakes where great quantities of oil evaporated or simply penetrated back into the ground, the company started to use iron reservoirs for oil storage.

The Oil Gush in Balakhany, one of the earliest films ever produced directed by the pioneer of cinema in Azerbaijan, Alexander Mishon

The first oil tanker in the world  a refurbished metal ship called "Zoroastr"  was built in 1878 in Sweden by Nobels. By 1890 345 tankers, including 133 steam vessels and 212 sailing vessels were sailing on the Caspian Sea. For instance, Mazut Trading Co, created by the Rothschild Frres in 1898, possessed 13 tankers in Caspian Sea alone. During these years, native Azerbaijani ship-owners appeared, of which the largest fleet belonged to Shamsi Asadullayev.

In 1877 construction of the first ever oil pipeline linking Surakhany oil field and refinery in Baku was completed. By 1890 there were more than 25 pipelines totalling 286 km.

The Nobel Brothers were the first to introduce railway tanks (cisterns) for oil transportation, when the railway link between Baku and Tbilisi was built in 1883. The situation with limited exporting options was solved by the construction of the Baku-Batumi Oil Pipeline. Construction began in 1897 and was completed 10 years later under supervision of Professor N. L. Szhukin.

Revolution and Soviet Republic

Several oil crises jolted Russia around 1903, when constant strikes, violence and ethnic strife during Russian Revolution of 1905 led to fall in the oil production from the peak of 212,000 bopd. The relative calm of the early 1910s was disrupted by World War I, when production of oil steadily decreased to reach the lowest level of just 65,000 bopd by 1918 and then dropped even more catastrophically by 1920. As a result of civil unrest no oil export was possible, oil storage facilities were damaged and wells were idle. The government of Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan was unable to restore the damage done to the oil industry during its time in office between 1918 and 1920.

Since 1918, more 5 mln ton of oil accumulated in Azerbaijan. After the occupation of Azerbaijan by Bolsheviks, all oil supplies were directed to Russia. All oil assets in the country were nationalized and Azneft State company was formed.

In 1920, only 1800 qualified specialists worked in the Russian oil industry of which 1232 worked in Azerbaijan. The industry urgently needed technology, education and specialists. The scientific exchange started with the US, where visitors from Baku were seconded to oil-fields in Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, California, Texas, learned new methods of well deepening and exploitation. The Azerbaijan State Oil Academy was established in 1920 to train oil specialists.

By the late 1920s, production stabilized. In 192829, oil production in the USSR equaled to 13.5 mln t including Azerbaijan's 8.7 mln t. By 1940, the total production of Azerbaijan  23.5 mln. t (475,000 bopd)  was a historical record not broken until 2005.

Advancement in drilling and logging practices

For the first time in Russia in 1925, Baku engineer M.M. Skvortsov constructed a device for the automatic movement of a chisel, which became known as the "automatic driller". By 1930, electrical logging tools were used in the wellbore by Schlumberger in the Surakhany oil field.

A new technology in drilling was introduced in Baku: electrical aggregates with exact control of the number of rotations came into widespread use. By the early 1930s about third of well stock was operated with pumps using gaslift. In 1933, the first deviated well was drilled in the Bibi-Heybat field.

Other firsts were:

1936 saw the beginning of the industrial application of the multi-stepped turbo drill without a reducer which had been invented by Shumilov, Taghiyev and others.

For the first time in the world, an oil well was drilled by the electro-drilling construction which was introduced by engineers Ostrovsky, Aleksandrov and others in Kala oil field

World War II

During that first year of the war, Azerbaijan produced 25.4 million tons of oil  a record. By the Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was recognised by the giving of orders and medals of the USSR.

By the end of the year, so many engineers and oil workers had left for the war front that positions had to be filled by women. By the summer of 1942, more than 25,000 women or 33% of all the workers were working 18 hour shifts in the oil industries. At refineries and chemical plants, the percentage of women was even higher, estimated at 38%. By 1944, women's participation had grown to 60%. Veterans and retirees also returned to the oil fields to help.

Hitler was determined to capture the oil fields of the Caucasus, in particular Baku, as it would provide much needed oil-supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades. The 1942 German offensive codenamed Case Blue saw a determined attempt to seize the oil fields in a large scale advance into the area. The plan was to attack Baku on September 25, 1942. Anticipating the upcoming victory, Hitler's generals presented him a cake of the region, where piece showing Baku was given to Hitler. But the Axis forces were surrounded and eventually defeated at Stalingrad forcing a retreat from the region.

Hitler in front of the cake showing Baku and Caspian sea his generals presented him. Cadre from a film.

Cutting for Hitler a piece showing Baku of the cake. Cadre from a film.

Piece of the cake showing Baku for Hitler. Cadre from a film.

Post-war period

Beginning of offshore exploration

The oil production from the existing fields started to decline after World War II, as a result of catastrophic over-production and under investment. However real potential for new discoveries was felt to be present offshore.

As far back as 1864, academician G.V. Abikh surveyed and reported structures present on the seabed of the Caspian.

In the early 1930s, engineers proposed construction of offshore wells timber piles, connected by a causeway, and the first such well was laid in the open sea on the depth of 6 m to the east from filled Bibi-Heybet bay..

In 1945, oil engineers S.A. Orujev, Y. Safarov proposed a method of tubular collapsible constructions for offshore bases. This construction enabled quick installation under oil-rig at any season. In 1947, a group of oilmen developed the trestle method of linking development rigs and processing facilities. Average height of trestle above sea level is 57 m, and width of causeway was about 3.5 m. In 1948, construction of trestles and other causeways started on Pirallahi and Oil Rocks.

wooden trestle employed at Oily Rocks

Oily Rocks Saga

One of the striking examples for offshore oil deposit development is "Oily Rocks"  "Neft Dashlari". It is located to the south-east of Absheron Archipelago. In "Oily Rocks" sea depth ranges from 10 to 25 m, though part of the oil pool reaches 60 metres depth. Oil prospecting with geological survey, structure drilling, seismic prospecting and preliminary drilling started in 1945.

On August 24, 1949 the first offshore exploration well at Neft Dashlari (Oil Rocks) was spudded after the causeway was built. On November , at a depth of 1,000 metres, the well N1 tested oil with a rate of 700 bopd. Neft Dashlari is referred to as "The Island of Seven Ships" because during construction of the bridge-head, disused ships were sunk to provide a solid base for causeways.

Intensive development began in 1950. Development from multiple drilling sites connected by trestle bridges also employed deviated holes. In 1953, to maintain the reservoir pressure, a water flood was applied. The field is still delivering about 15,000 bopd after 50 years of exploitation.

Offshore exploration in the 1960s and 1970s

As a result of intensive geological and geophysical mapping during 1950-1960 main Caspian oil-and-gas bearing structures were determined. The discoveries included such fields as Darwin Bank, Gum Deniz "Canub", "Gurgani-sea", "island Jiloy", "Hazi Aslanov", "Sangachalli-sea", "Duvanni-sea", "Island Bullah", "Peschany", .

One of the largest offshore fields "Sangachal-deniz" was drilled several times since 1959, but success came only in 1965. "Duvanni-deniz field" discovery well was tested in May of 1963 with an output of 700 b/day. This field has about 700 million barrels (110,000,000 m3) of oil reserves.

Several large oil and gas fields were discovered and put into production between 1968 and 1975: Bahar (1968), Sangachali-Duvanni (1969), Bulla Deniz (1975).

Production reached its peak in 1967 with 414,000 b/day being produced and henceforth started to decline as Oily Rocks development was complete. Gas production increased steadily through until 1990s until the decline of Bahar and Bulla gas fields ensued.

As a result of modern methods of exploration being employed four new multireservoir fields were opened in the Caspian at a depth of 200 meters: Gunashli (1979), Chirag (1985), Azeri (1988) and Kapaz (1989). The Caspian was covered by extensive 2D seismic grid and 3D seismic was attempted, however unsuccessfully. The discovery of Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli field complex was the last but significant achievement by Azeri Soviet explorationists. The shallow portion of Guneshli, where water depth allowed oil development was put in production by 1989 and now delivers 120,000 bopd.

In Chirag drilling took place via semi-submersible drilling equipment at a depth of 200 meters  an offshore record for USSR. The Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli complex contains more than 16 billion barrels (2.5109 m3) of oil in place.

"Contract of the Century"

After gaining independence Azerbaijan started to attract badly needed foreign investment into the country.

The implementation of the 20 PSA contracts (requiring $60 billion investment) that have been concluded so far is an integral part of Azerbaijan's oil strategy. The first contract to be signed was Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli

Azeri, Chirag and deep-water Gunashli (ACG)-International Contract No. 1-was signed by President Heydar Aliyev and the participating international companies on September 20, 1994, ratified in Parliament on December 2, and went into effect on December 12. Because of its potential reserves estimated at 6 billion barrels (950,000,000 m3) of oil, this project is often referred to as the "Contract of the Century". The projected investment for this project is $13 billion.

A few months later in 1995, a consortium was organized known as the Azerbaijan International Operating Company (AIOC). Originally AIOC was composed of eleven major international companies: BP (UK), Amoco (U.S.), LUKoil (Russia), Pennzoil, (now Devon of U.S.), UNOCAL (U.S.), Statoil (Norway), McDermott (U.S.), Ramco (Scotland), TPAO (Turkey), Delta Nimir (now Amerada Hess of U.S.), and SOCAR (Azerbaijan).

Since then Exxon, now ExxonMobil (U.S.); ITOCHU (Japan); and INPEX (Japan) have joined the consortium. McDermott, Ramco and LUKoil have since sold their shares. AIOC's first president was Terry Adams (UK) of British Petroleum (BP), the company which operates the offshore oil platforms and the onshore Sangachal Terminal.

However, the problem of how to deliver the oil to European markets existed. This problem was solved by the agreement for the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline among Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey in 1998.

The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline was officially opened in July 13, 2006 and now transports crude oil 1,760 km (1,094 miles) from the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field in the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. The oil is pumped from the Sangachal Terminal close to Baku, via Tbilisi the capital of Georgia, to Ceyhan a port on the south-eastern Mediterranean coast of Turkey. It is the second longest oil pipeline in the world (the longest being the Druzhba pipeline from Russia to central Europe).

The BTC pipeline is expected to make a major contribution to the development of world energy supply with its more than 1 million barrels per day capacity. Thanks to this project Turkey is also expected to earn about $300 million annually. Around 15,000 people were employed during the construction of the pipeline which cost $3 billion

Shah Deniz field is the largest gas field discovered by BP for many years in 1999. The Shah Deniz gas plant at Sangachal Termanal started up in 2007 and made Azerbaijan into a major gas producer. Stage 1 of Shah Deniz project is now complete and supplies Europe with 8 bcma of natural gas via the South Caucasus Pipeline. Stage 2 of the Shah Deniz Project has been approved and is being designed.

References

Free Political Journal

Azerbaijan International Sherman Oaks, CA (U.S.), 1993-2003. Search at AZER.com.

Azerbaijan Oil Industry (magazine). Baku, 1995-2002.

Oil Industry (magazine). Moscow, 1995-2002.

Territory of Neftegas (magazine). Moscow, 2001-2002.

Books

Balayev, S. G., Oil of the Country of Eternal Fire. Baku: Azernashir Publishing House, 1969.

Lisichkin, S.M., Outstanding People of Native Oil Science and Technique. Moscow: Nedra Publishing House, 1967.

Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan SSR. Edited by H.B. Abdullayev. Baku: Elm Publishing House,1976.

Mir-Babayev, M.F., rief chronology of the history of Azerbaijan oil business. Baku, abah, 2004, 200 s. ISBN 5-86106-083-5

Mir-Babayev, M.F., "Absheron Oil: The Development of Oil Business in Azerbaijan" in Chemistry and Technology of Fuels and Oils, Moscow, No. 3 (1993), pp. 36-37.

Mir-Babayev, M.F., "Azerbaijan's Oil History: A Chronology Leading Up to the Soviet Era-Azerbaijan International Magazine, Sherman Oaks, CA (US) AI 10.2 (Summer 2002), pp. 3441. Search at AZER.com

Notes

^ "As far back as 1877 Charles Marvin wrote that there was irrefutable proof that 2500 years ago oil was exported from the Apsheron peninsula, where Baku is located, to Iran, Iraq, India and other countries. This was reported by such well known historians and travellers as Prisk of Pontus (fifth century), Abu-Istakhri (eighth century), Ahmed Balazuri (ninth century), Masudi (tenth century), Marco Polo (thirteenth-fourteenth centuries) and O'Learius (seventeenth century)." AZERBAIJANI OIL: GLIMPSES OF A LONG HISTORY, SABIT BAGIROV

^ The Travels of Marco Polo. ISBN 0140440577

^ Mir-Babayev, 24.

^ Mir-Babayev

^ Mir-Babayev 16

^ Baku: City that Oil Built

v  d  e

Petroleum industry in Asia

Sovereign

states

Afghanistan  Armenia1  Azerbaijan1  Bahrain  Bangladesh  Bhutan  Brunei  Burma2  Cambodia  People's Republic of China  Cyprus1  East Timor3  Egypt4  Georgia4  India  Indonesia  Iran  Iraq  Israel  Japan  Jordan  Kazakhstan4  North Korea  South Korea  Kuwait  Kyrgyzstan  Laos  Lebanon  Malaysia  Maldives  Mongolia  Nepal  Oman  Pakistan  Philippines  Qatar  Russia4  Saudi Arabia  Singapore  Sri Lanka  Syria  Tajikistan  Republic of China5  Thailand  Turkey4  Turkmenistan  United Arab Emirates  Uzbekistan  Vietnam  Yemen

States with limited

recognition

Abkhazia1  Nagorno-Karabakh  Northern Cyprus  Palestine  South Ossetia1 

Dependencies,

autonomies,

other territories

Aceh  Adjara1  Akrotiri and Dhekelia  Altai  British Indian Ocean Territory  Buryatia  Christmas Island  Cocos (Keeling) Islands  Guangxi  Hong Kong  Inner Mongolia  Iraqi Kurdistan  Khakassia  Macau  Nakhchivan  Ningxia  Papua  Sakha Republic  Tibet  Tuva  West Papua  Xinjiang 

1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions.  2 Officially known as Myanmar.  3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste.  4 Transcontinental country.  5 Commonly known as Taiwan. 

Categories: Energy in Azerbaijan | History of Azerbaijan | History of the petroleum industry | Energy in the Soviet Union | Petroleum industry by countryHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009

Air conditioner

China Product


History

Main article: Air conditioning#History

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, professor of chemistry at Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids such as alcohol and ether, could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to "quicken" the evaporation; they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to 7 F (14 C) while the ambient temperature was 65 F (18 C). Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water (32F) a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about a quarter inch thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching 7 F (14 C). Franklin concluded, "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day". programmable digital timer

In 1820, British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped eventually to use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly, Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. His hopes for its success vanished soon afterward when his chief financial backer died; Gorrie did not get the money he needed to develop the machine. According to his biographer Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie died impoverished in 1855 and the idea of air conditioning faded away for 50 years. triple timer

Early commercial applications of air conditioning were manufactured to cool air for industrial processing rather than personal comfort. In 1902 the first modern electrical air conditioning was invented by Willis Haviland Carrier in Syracuse, NY. Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, his invention controlled not only temperature but also humidity. The low heat and humidity were to help maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over time air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles. Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s. digital programmable timer

In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina, was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an analogue to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company. This evaporation of water in air, to provide a cooling effect, is now known as evaporative cooling.

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases like ammonia, methyl chloride, and propane which could result in fatal accidents when they leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon, in 1928. The refrigerant was much safer for humans but was later found to be harmful to the atmosphere's ozone layer. Freon is a trademark name of DuPont for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrogenated CFC (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant, the name of each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22. It is to be phased out for use in new equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-12 was the most common blend used in automobiles in the United States until 1994 when most changed to R-134A. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the United States, the only source for purchase being the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems. Several non-ozone depleting refrigerants have been developed as alternatives, including R-410A, known by the brand name Puron. The most common ozone-depleting refrigerants are R-22, R-11, and R-123.

Innovation in air conditioning technologies continue, with much recent emphasis placed on energy efficiency and improving indoor air quality. As an alternative to conventional refrigerants, natural alternatives like CO2 (R-744) have been proposed.

Air conditioning applications

Main article: Air conditioning#Air conditioning applications

This section requires expansion.

Air conditioning system basics and theories

Refrigeration cycle

A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator coil, 4) compressor.

In the refrigeration cycle, a heat pump transfers heat from a lower-temperature heat source into a higher-temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior and into the room in which it stands.

This cycle takes advantage of the way phase changes work, where latent heat is released at a constant temperature during a liquid/gas phase change, and where varying the pressure of a pure substance also varies its condensation/boiling point.

The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor. In an automobile, the compressor is driven by a belt over a pulley, the belt being driven by the engine's crankshaft (similar to the driving of the pulleys for the alternator, power steering, etc.). Whether in a car or building, both use electric fan motors for air circulation. Since evaporation occurs when heat is absorbed, and condensation occurs when heat is released, air conditioners use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively condense and pump a refrigerant around. A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil), where the low pressure causes the refrigerant to evaporate into a vapor, taking heat with it. In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapor is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.

Cylinder unloaders are a method of load control used mainly in commercial air conditioning systems. On a semi-hermetic (or open) compressor, the heads can be fitted with unloaders which remove a portion of the load from the compressor so that it can run better when full cooling is not needed. Unloaders can be electrical or mechanical.

Humidity

Air conditioning equipment usually reduces the humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the dew point) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, much as a cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass. The water is drained, removing water vapor from the cooled space and thereby lowering its relative humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retail establishments, large, open chiller cabinets act as highly effective dehumidifiers.

Some air conditioning units dry the air without cooling it. These work like a normal air conditioner, except that a heat exchanger is placed between the intake and exhaust. In combination with convection fans, they achieve a similar level of comfort as an air cooler in humid tropical climates, but only consume about one-third the energy. They are also preferred by those who find the draft created by air coolers uncomfortable.

Refrigerants

Main article: Refrigerant

"Freon" is a trade name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties. Unfortunately, evidence has accumulated that these chlorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine atoms catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst unless it binds with another chlorine radical, forming a stable molecule and breaking the chain reaction. CFC refrigerants is common, but decreasing usage include R-11 and R-12. In light of these environmental concerns, beginning on November 14, 1994, the Environmental Protection Agency has restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerant to only licensed technicians, per Rules 608 and 609 of the EPA rules and regulations; failure to comply may result in criminal and civil sanctions. Newer and more environmentally-safe refrigerants such as HCFCs (R-22, used in most homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) such as R-410A, which lack chlorine. Carbon Dioxide (R-744) is being rapidly adopted as a refrigerant in Europe and Japan with Volkswagen being one of the first automotive manufacturers to roll out the new systems. R-744 must use higher compression to produce an equivalent cooling effect but has the advantage of being about 10% more efficient as compared to R-134A. R-744 also has a co2 factor of 1.

The external section of a typical single-room air conditioning unit. For ease of installation, these are frequently placed in a window. This one was installed through a hole cut in the wall.

The internal section of the above unit. The front panel swings down to reveal the controls.

Internal section of a modern Americool window air conditioner.

Reverse-cycle

This section requires expansion.

For more details on this topic, see Air conditioning#Heat pumps.

Types of air conditioner equipment

Window and through-wall units

Room air conditioners come in two forms: unitary and packaged terminal PTAC systems. Unitary systems, the common one room air conditioners, sit in a window or wall opening, with interior controls. Interior air is cooled as a fan blows it over the evaporator. On the exterior the air is heated as a second fan blows it over the condenser. In this process, heat is drawn from the room and discharged to the environment. A large house or building may have several such units, permitting each room be cooled separately. PTAC systems are also known as wall split air conditioning systems or ductless systems. These PTAC systems which are frequently used in hotels have two separate units (terminal packages), the evaportive unit on the exterior and the condensing unit on the interior, with tubing passing through the wall and connecting them. This minimizes the interior system footprint and allows each room to be adjusted independently. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas or other heater, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a heat pump. While room air conditioning provides maximum flexibility, when cooling many rooms it is generally more expensive than central air conditioning.

Evaporative coolers

Main article: Evaporative cooler

In very dry climates, evaporative coolers are popular for improving comfort during hot weather. This type of cooler is the dominant cooler used in Iran, which has the largest number of these units of any country in the world, causing some to referring to these units as "Persian coolers." An evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water. The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The total heat (sensible heat plus latent heat) of the entering air is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite comfortable; evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as a open door or window.

These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.

An early type of cooler, using ice for a further effect, was patented by John Gorrie of Apalachicola, Florida in 1842. He used the device to cool the patients in his malaria hospital.

Absorptive chillers

Main article: Absorption refrigerator

Portable air conditioners

Portable air conditioners (or PACs) are moveable units that can be used to cool a specific room in a home and do not require permanent installation. Warm air in the room is drawn in through inlets on the portable air conditioner. The air is circulated through the unit and is cooled by evaporator coils with refrigerant running through them and then blown out through the front. Remaining hot air in the unit is expelled and vented through the back with an exhaust hose. All portable air conditioners require exhaust hoses for venting.

Single Hosed Units

A single hosed unit has one hose that runs from the back of the portable air conditioner to the vent kit where hot air can be released. A single hosed portable air conditioner can cool a room that is 475 sq. ft. or smaller and has at most a cooling power of 12,000 BTUs.

Dual Hosed Units

Dual hosed units are typically used in larger rooms. One hose is used as the exhaust hose to vent hot air and the other as the intake hose to draw in additional air (usually from the outside). These units generally have a cooler power of 12,000-14,000 BTUs and cool rooms that are around 500 sq. ft. The reason an intake hose is needed to draw in extra air is because with higher BTU units, air is cycled in large amounts and hot air is expelled at a faster rate. This creates negative air pressure in the room, and the intake hose stabilizes the room's air pressure.

Split Units

Portable units are also available in split configuration, with the compressor and evaporator located in a separate external package and the two units connected via two detachable refrigerant pipes, as is the case with fixed split systems. Split portable units are superior to both single and dual hosed mono-portable units in that interior noise and size of the internal unit is greatly reduced due to the external location of the compressor, and no water needs to be drained from the internal unit due to the exterior location of the evaporator.

A drawback of split portable units compared with mono-portables is that a surface exterior to the building, such as a balcony must be provided for the external compressor unit to be located.

Unlike window ACs the split AC does not have an option of exchange of indoor and outdoor air.

Heat and Cool Units

Some portable air conditioner units are also able to provide heat by reversing the cooling process so that cool air is collected from a room and warm air is released. These units are not meant to replace actual heaters though and should not be used to cool rooms lower than 50 F (10 C).

Central air conditioning

Central air conditioning, commonly referred to as central air (U.S.) or air-con (UK), is an air conditioning system which uses ducts to distribute cooled and/or dehumidified air to more than one room, or uses pipes to distribute chilled water to heat exchangers in more than one room, and which is not plugged into a standard electrical outlet.

With a typical split system, the condenser and compressor are located in an outdoor unit; the evaporator is mounted in the air handler unit. With a package system, all components are located in a single outdoor unit that may be located on the ground or roof.

Central air conditioning performs like a regular air conditioner but has several added benefits:

When the air handling unit turns on, room air is drawn in from various parts of the building through return-air ducts. This air is pulled through a filter where airborne particles such as dust and lint are removed. Sophisticated filters may remove microscopic pollutants as well. The filtered air is routed to air supply ductwork that carries it back to rooms. Whenever the air conditioner is running, this cycle repeats continually.

Because the condenser unit (with its fan and the compressor) is located outside the home, it offers a lower level of indoor noise than a free-standing air conditioning unit.

Mini (Small) Duct, High Velocity

A central air conditioning system using high velocity air forced through small ducts (also called mini-ducts), typically round, flexible hoses about 2 inches in diameter. Using the principle of aspiration, the higher velocity air mixes more effectively with the room air, eliminating temperature discrepancies and drafts. A high velocity system can be louder than a conventional system if sound attenuators are not used, though they come standard on most, if not all, systems.

The smaller, flexible tubing used for a mini-duct system allows it to be more easily installed in historic buildings, and structures with solid walls, such as log homes. These small ducts are also typically longer contiguous pieces, and therefore less prone to leakage. Another added benefit of this type of ducting is the prevention of foreign particle buildup within the ducts, due to a combination of the higher velocity air, as well as the lack of hard corners.

Thermostats

Main article: Thermostat

Thermostats control the operation of HVAC systems, turning on the heating or cooling systems to bring the building to the set temperature. Typically the heating and cooling systems have separate control systems (even though they may share a thermostat) so that the temperature is only controlled "one-way." That is, in cold weather, a building that is too hot will not be cooled by the thermostat. Thermostats may also be incorporated into facility energy management systems in which the power utility customer may control the overall energy expenditure. In addition, a growing number of power utilities have made available a device which, when professionally installed, will control or limit the power to an HVAC system during peak use times in order to avoid necessitating the use of rolling blackouts. The customer is given a credit of some sort in exchange, so it is often to the advantage of the consumer to buy the most efficient[citation needed] thermostat possible.

Equipment capacity

Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration." A "ton of refrigeration" is defined as the cooling power of one short ton (2000 pounds or 907 kilograms) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. This is equal to 12,000 BTU per hour, or 3517 watts. Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3 to 20 kilowatts (kW)) in capacity.

The use of electric/compressive air conditioning puts a major demand on the electrical power grid in hot weather, when most units are operating under heavy load. In the aftermath of the 2003 North America blackout locals were asked to keep their air conditioning off. During peak demand, additional power plants must often be brought online, usually expensive peaker plants. A 1995 meta-analysis of various utility studies concluded that the average air conditioner wasted 40% of the input energy. This energy is lost in the form of heat, which must be pumped out. There is a huge opportunity to reduce the need for new power plants and to conserve energy.

In an automobile, the A/C system will use around 5 horsepower (4 kW) of the engine's power.[citation needed]

Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (SEER)

Main article: Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating

For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER). The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of cooling output during its normal annual usage divided by the total electric energy input in watt hours (Wh) during the same period.

SEER = BTU Wh

this can also be rewritten as:

SEER = (BTU / h) W, where "W" is the average electrical power in Watts, and (BTU/h) is the rated cooling power.

For example, a 5000 BTU/h air-conditioning unit, with a SEER of 10, would consume 5000/10 = 500 Watts of power on average (assuming 1000 hours of operation during a typical cooling season, i.e., 8 hours per day for 125 days per year)

The electrical energy consumed per year can be calculated as the average power multiplied by the annual operating time:

500 W 1000 h = 500,000 Wh = 500 kWh

Another method that yields the same result, is to calculate the total annual cooling output:

5000 BTU/h 1000 h = 5,000,000 BTU

Then, for a SEER of 10, the annual electrical energy usage would be:

5,000,000 BTU 10 = 500,000 Wh = 500 kWh

SEER is related to the coefficient of performance (COP) commonly used in thermodynamics and also to the Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER). The EER is the efficiency rating for the equipment at a particular pair of external and internal temperatures, while SEER is calculated over a whole range of external temperatures (i.e., the temperature distribution for the geographical location of the SEER test). SEER is unusual in that it is composed of an Imperial unit divided by an SI unit. The COP is a ratio with the same metric units of energy (joules) in both the numerator and denominator. They cancel out, leaving a dimensionless quantity. Formulas for the approximate conversion between SEER and EER or COP are available from the Pacific Gas and Electric Company:

(1)     SEER = EER 0.9

(2)     SEER = COP x 3.792

(3)     EER = COP x 3.413

From equation (2) above, a SEER of 13 is equivalent to a COP of 3.43, which means that 3.43 units of heat energy are pumped per unit of work energy.

Today, it is rare to see systems rated below SEER 9 in the United States, since older units are being replaced with higher-efficiency units. The United States now requires that residential systems manufactured in 2006 have a minimum SEER rating of 13 (although window-box systems are exempt from this law, so their SEER is still around 10). Substantial energy savings can be obtained from more efficient systems. For example by upgrading from SEER 9 to SEER 13, the power consumption is reduced by 30% (equal to 1 - 9/13). It is claimed that this can result in an energy savings valued at up to US$300 per year (depending on the usage rate and the cost of electricity). In many cases, the lifetime energy savings are likely to surpass the higher initial cost of a high-efficiency unit.

As an example, the annual cost of electric power consumed by a 72,000 BTU/h air conditioning unit operating for 1000 hours per year with a SEER rating of 10 and a power cost of $0.08 per kilowatt hour (kWh) may be calculated as follows:

unit size, BTU/h hours per year, h power cost, $/kWh (SEER, BTU/Wh 1000 W/kW)

(72,000 BTU/h) (1000 h) ($0.08/kWh) [(10 BTU/Wh) (1000 W/kW)] = $576.00 annual cost

A common misconception is that the SEER rating system also applies to heating systems. However, SEER ratings only apply to air conditioning.

Air conditioners (for cooling) and heat pumps (for heating) both work similarly in that heat is transferred or "pumped" from a cooler heat source to a warmer "heat sink". Air conditioners and heat pumps usually operate most effectively at temperatures around 10 to 13 degrees Celsius (C) (50 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit (F)). A balance point is reached when the heat source temperature falls below about 4 C (40 F), and the system is not able to pull any more heat from the heat source (this point varies from heat pump to heat pump). Similarly, when the heat sink temperature rises to about 49 C (120 F), the system will operate less effectively, and will not be able to "push" out any more heat. Geothermal heat pumps do not have this problem of reaching a balance point because they use the ground as a heat source/heat sink and the ground's thermal inertia prevents it from becoming too cold or too warm when moving heat from or to it. The ground's temperature does not vary nearly as much over a year as that of the air above it.

Insulation

This section requires expansion.

Insulation reduces the required power of the air conditioning system. Thick building walls, reflective roofing, curtains, and trees next to buildings also cut down on system and energy requirements.

Home air conditioning systems around the world

Domestic air conditioning is most prevalent and ubiquitous in developed Asian and Middle Eastern nations and territories, such as Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Israel, China and the Persian Gulf States such as Bahrain, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. This especially applies to Singapore and Hong Kong due to most of the population living in small high-rise flats. In these areas, with high summer temperatures and a high standard of living, air conditioning is considered a necessity and not a luxury. Japanese-made domestic air conditioners are usually window or split types, the latter being more modern and expensive. In Israel, virtually all residential systems are split types. Air conditioning is also increasing in popularity with the rising standard of living in tropical Asian nations such as Thailand, India, Pakistan, Malaysia, and the Philippines.

In the United States, home air conditioning is most prevalent in the South/Southwest and on the East Coast, areas in which it has reached the ubiquity it enjoys in East Asia.[citation needed] Central air systems are most common in the United States, and are virtually standard in all new dwellings in most states.[citation needed]

In Canada, home air conditioning is less common than in East Asia and the United States, but it still quite prevalent. This is especially true of the Great Lakes regions of southern Ontario and Quebec, where there are especially high humidity levels. While window and split units are common in these regions, central air systems are the most widespread in Western Canada. Virtually all Western Canadian homes are built with already-compatible central forced air natural gas heating systems, making installing a central air system very simple. In Central Canada separate room-based hydro powered heating is more common, leading to the higher cost of retrofitting a central air system. The majority of modern urban high-rise condominiums built in Canadian cities have air conditioning systems. It is also offered as a relatively low-cost option on most new built homes. While energy is comparatively very cheap in Canada, the large size of the average Canadian home and cold winters make heating and cooling one of the largest household expenses. Canadian summers are uncomfortably hot, but rarely reach the dangerous temperatures experienced in the United State or Asia. As such, many Canadians, especially in older homes, simply choose to forgo air conditioning in lieu of simple fans and evaporative coolers. Aside from the cost, air conditioning is often considered environmentally unfriendly, even though the majority of household energy in Canada comes from hydro and nuclear. There have been a number of advances in more "green" technologies, including geothermal cooling and a new Toronto system that cools a number of office towers using cold water from Lake Ontario.

In Europe, home air conditioning is generally less common in part due to higher energy costs and moderate summer temperatures, but these devices use lots of energy and are considered environmentally unfriendly.[who?] Southern European countries such as Greece, on the other hand, have seen a wide proliferation of home air-conditioning units in recent years. The lack of air conditioning in residences, residential care homes, and medical facilities was identified as a contributing factor to the estimated 35,000 deaths  mostly in Germany, France and Italy  left in the wake of the 2003 heat wave.

See also

Air filter

Dehumidifier

EcoCute

Energy

Energy conservation

Heat pump

Heating

HVAC

Hydronics

Inverter

Noise mitigation

Renewable energy

Refrigeration

Trigeneration

Whole house fan

References

^ Cooling by Evaporation (Letter to John Lining). Benjamin Franklin, London, June 17, 1758

^ History of Air Conditioning Source: Jones Jr., Malcolm. "Air Conditioning". Newsweek. Winter 1997 v130 n24-A p42(2). Retrieved 1 January 2007.

^ The current status in Air Conditioning  papers & presentations

^ EPA Rules & Regulations restricting refrigerant

^ Air Conditioning Explained, retrieved 19 May 2009

^ Dahlgren, Derek; Jewell, Amy; Li, Ruth; et al.. "History of Air Conditioning". Bucknell University. http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mvigeant/therm_1/AC_final/bg.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-15. 

^ Shane Smith (2000). Greenhouse gardener's companion: growing food and flowers in your greenhouse or sunspace (2nd ed.). Fulcrum Publishing. p. 62. ISBN 9781555914509. http://books.google.com/books?id=Onv60-c6iEIC&pg=PA62&dq=evaporative-cooler+exhaust+open+door+window&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=kv2MSqH7AZqIlQShoKymBw#v=onepage&q=evaporative-cooler%20exhaust%20open%20door%20window&f=false. 

^ "Portable Air Conditioner FAQs". PortableAirShop.com. http://www.portableairshop.com/Buyers+Guide%3a+PAC+FAQ/BUYERS_GUIDE_PAC_FAQ,default,pg.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

^ a b c "Portable Air Conditioner Buyer's Guide". PortableAirShop.com. http://www.portableairshop.com/Buyers+Guide%3a+Introduction+to+PAC/BUYERS_GUIDE_PAC_OVERVIEW,default,pg.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

^ a b "Cooling Capacity Calculator". PortableAirShop.com. http://www.portableairshop.com/Buyers+Guide%3a+Air%3a+PAC+BTU+Calculator/BUYERS_GUIDE_PAC_BTU_CALCULATOR,default,pg.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

^

^

^ "NIST Guide to the SI". National Institute of Standards and Technology. http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB9.html. Retrieved 2007-05-18. 

^ "Energy Glossary - S". Energy Glossary. Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/glossary_s.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-02. 

^ SEER conversion formulas from Pacific Gas and Electric

^ United States Department of Energy (2006-01-23). "Stronger Manufacturers' Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential Air Conditioners Go Into Effect Today". Press release. http://www.energy.gov/news/3097.htm. Retrieved 2006-07-02. 

^ " " (in Greek). news in.gr (Athens: Lambrakis Press). 2007-07-25. http://www.in.gr/news/article.asp?lngEntityID=819799&lngDtrID=244. Retrieved 2008-06-30. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Air conditioners

"DENSO Develops World's First CO2 Car Air Conditioner". The Auto Channel. 2002-12-04. http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2002/12/04/151245.html. Retrieved 2008-07-19. 

Space heating and cooling from the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

UK Enhanced Capital Allowance Scheme (ECA), a UK Government scheme to provide tax rebates for companies who use products which are ECA approved.

International Energy Agency - Energy Conservation In Buildings And Community Systems

Top-Rated Energy-Efficient Central Air Conditioners

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