Catalysis

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Background

The production of most industrially important chemicals involves catalysis. Similarly, most biochemically significant processes are catalysed. Research into catalysis is a major field in applied science and involves many areas of chemistry, notably in organometallic chemistry and materials science. Catalysis is relevant to many aspects of environmental science, e.g. the catalytic converter in automobiles and the dynamics of the ozone hole. Catalytic reactions are preferred in environmentally friendly green chemistry due to the reduced amount of waste generated, as opposed to stoichiometric reactions in which all reactants are consumed and more side products are formed. The most common catalyst is the proton (H+). Many transition metals and transition metal complexes are used in catalysis as well. Catalysts called enzymes are important in biology.

A catalyst works by providing an alternative reaction pathway to the reaction product. The rate of the reaction is increased as this alternative route has a lower activation energy than the reaction route not mediated by the catalyst. The disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide to give water and oxygen is a reaction that is strongly affected by catalysts: fredricks of

2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2 water distillers

This reaction is favoured in the sense that reaction products are more stable than the starting material, however the uncatalysed reaction is slow. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is in fact so slow that hydrogen peroxide solutions are commercially available. Upon the addition of a small amount of manganese dioxide, the hydrogen peroxide rapidly reacts according to the above equation. This effect is readily seen by the effervescence of oxygen. The manganese dioxide may be recovered unchanged, and re-used indefinitely, and thus is not consumed in the reaction. Accordingly, manganese dioxide catalyses this reaction. water distiller

General principles of catalysis

Typical mechanism

Main article: catalytic cycle

Catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form intermediates that subsequently give the final reaction product, in the process regenerating the catalyst. The following is a typical reaction scheme, where C represents the catalyst, X and Y are reactants, and Z is the product of the reaction of X and Y:

X + C XC (1)

Y + XC XYC (2)

XYC CZ (3)

CZ C + Z (4)

Although the catalyst is consumed by reaction 1, it is subsequently produced by reaction 4, so for the overall reaction:

X + Y Z

As a catalyst is regenerated in a reaction, often only small amounts are needed to increase the rate of the reaction. In practice, however, catalysts are sometimes consumed in secondary processes.

As an example of this process, in 2008 Danish researchers first revealed the sequence of events when oxygen and hydrogen combine on the surface of titanium dioxide (TiO2, or titania) to produce water. With a time-lapse series of scanning tunneling microscopy images, they determined the molecules undergo adsorption, dissociation and diffusion before reacting. The intermediate reaction states were: HO2, H2O2, then H3O2 and the final reaction product (water molecule dimers), after which the water molecule desorbs from the catalyst surface.

Catalysis and reaction energetics

Generic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in a hypothetical exothermic chemical reaction X + Y to give Z. The presence of the catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (shown in red) with a lower activation energy. The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same.

Catalysts work by providing an (alternative) mechanism involving a different transition state and lower activation energy. Consequently, more molecular collisions have the energy needed to reach the transition state. Hence, catalysts can enable reactions that would otherwise be blocked or slowed by a kinetic barrier. The catalyst may increase reaction rate or selectivity, or enable the reaction at lower temperatures. This effect can be illustrated with a Boltzmann distribution and energy profile diagram.

Catalysts do not change the extent of a reaction: they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction because the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are both affected (see also thermodynamics). The fact that a catalyst does not change the equilibrium is a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics. Suppose there was such a catalyst that shifted an equilibrium. Introducing the catalyst to the system would result in reaction to move to the new equilibrium, producing energy. Production of energy is a necessary result since reactions are spontaneous if and only if Gibbs free energy is produced, and if there is no energy barrier, there is no need for a catalyst. Then, removing the catalyst would also result in reaction, producing energy; i.e. the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy. Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a perpetual motion machine, a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics.

If a catalyst does change the equilibrium, then it must be consumed as the reaction proceeds, and thus it is also a reactant. Illustrative is the base-catalysed hydrolysis of esters, where the produced carboxylic acid immediately reacts with the base catalyst and thus the reaction equilibrium is shifted towards hydrolysis.

The SI derived unit for measuring the catalytic activity of a catalyst is the katal, which is moles per second. The activity of a catalyst can also be described by the turn over number (or TON) and the catalytic efficiency by the turn over frequency (TOF). The biochemical equivalent is the enzyme unit. For more information on the efficiency of enzymatic catalysis, see the article on Enzymes.

The catalyst stabilizes the transition state more than it stabilizes the starting material. It decreases the kinetic barrier by decreasing the difference in energy between starting material and transition state.

Typical catalytic materials

The chemical nature of catalysts is as diverse as catalysis itself, although some generalizations can be made. Proton acids are probably the most widely used catalysts, especially for the many reactions involving water, including hydrolysis and its reverse. Multifunctional solids often are catalytically active, e.g. zeolites, alumina and certain forms of graphitic carbon. Transition metals are often used to catalyse redox reactions (oxidation, hydrogenation). Many catalytic processes, especially those involving hydrogen, require platinum metals.

Some so-called catalysts are really precatalysts. Precatalysts convert to catalysts in the reaction. For example, Wilkinson's catalyst RhCl(PPh3)3 loses one triphenylphosphine ligand before entering the true catalytic cycle. Precatalysts are easier to store but are easily activated in situ. Because of this preactivation step, many catalytic reactions involve an induction period.

Chemical species that improve catalytic activity are called co-catalysts (cocatalysts) or promotors in cooperative catalysis.

Types of catalysis

Catalysts can be either heterogeneous or homogeneous, depending on whether a catalyst exists in the same phase as the substrate. Biocatalysts are often seen as a separate group.

Heterogeneous catalysts

Main article: Heterogeneous catalysis

Heterogeneous catalysts are those which act in a different phases than the reactants. Most heterogeneous catalysts are solids that act on substrates in a liquid or gaseous reaction mixture. Diverse mechanisms for reactions on surfaces are known, depending on how the adsorption takes place (Langmuir-Hinshelwood, Eley-Rideal, and Mars-van Krevelen). The total surface area of solid has an important effect on the reaction rate. The smaller the catalyst particle size, the larger the surface area for a given mass of particles.

For example, in the Haber process, finely divided iron serves as a catalyst for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen. The reacting gases adsorb onto "active sites" on the iron particles. Once adsorbed, the bonds within the reacting molecules are weakened, and new bonds between the resulting fragments form in part due to their close proximity. In this way the particularly strong triple bond in nitrogen is weakened and the hydrogen and nitrogen atoms combine faster than would be the case in the gas phase, so the rate of reaction increases.[citation needed]

Heterogeneous catalysts are typically upported, which means that the catalyst is dispersed on a second material that enhances the effectiveness or minimizes their cost. Sometimes the support is merely a surface upon which the catalyst is spread to increase the surface area. More often, the support and the catalyst interact, affecting the catalytic reaction.

Homogeneous catalysts

Main article: Homogeneous catalysis

Homogeneous catalysts function in the same phase as the reactants, but the mechanistic principles invoked in heterogeneous catalysis are generally applicable. Typically homogeneous catalysts are dissolved in a solvent with the substrates. One example of homogeneous catalysis involves the influence of H+ on the esterification of esters, e.g. methyl acetate from acetic acid and methanol. For inorganic chemists, homogeneous catalysis is often synonymous with organometallic catalysts.

Electrocatalysts

Main article: Electrocatalyst

In the context of electrochemistry, specifically in fuel cell engineering, various metal-containing catalysts are used to enhance the rates of the half reactions that comprise the fuel cell. One common type of fuel cell electrocatalyst is based upon nanoparticles of platinum that are supported on slightly larger carbon particles. When this platinum electrocatalyst is in contact with one of the electrodes in a fuel cell, it increases the rate of oxygen reduction to water (or hydroxide or hydrogen peroxide).

Organocatalysis

Main article: Organocatalysis

Whereas transition metals sometimes attract most of the attention in the study of catalysis, organic molecules without metals can also possess catalytic properties. Typically, organic catalysts require a higher loading (or amount of catalyst per unit amount of reactant) than transition metal-based catalysts, but these catalysts are usually commercially available in bulk, helping to reduce costs. In the early 2000s, organocatalysts were considered "new generation" and are competitive to traditional metal-containing catalysts. Enzymatic reactions operate via the principles of organic catalysis.

Significance of catalysis

Estimates are that 90% of all commercially produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture. In 2005, catalytic processes generated about $900 billion in products worldwide.(pdf) Catalysis is so pervasive that subareas are not readily classified. Some areas of particular concentration are surveyed below.

Energy processing

Petroleum refining makes intensive use of catalysis for alkylation, catalytic cracking (breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller pieces), naphtha reforming and steam reforming (conversion of hydrocarbons into synthesis gas). Even the exhaust from the burning of fossil fuels is treated via catalysis: Catalytic converters, typically composed of platinum and rhodium, break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust.

2 CO + 2 NO 2 CO2 + N2

With regard to synthetic fuels, an old but still important process is the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons from synthesis gas, which itself is processed via water-gas shift reactions, catalysed by iron. Biodiesel and related biofuels require processing via both inorganic and biocatalysts.

Fuel cells rely on catalysts for both the anodic and cathodic reactions.

Bulk chemicals

Some of the largest-scale chemicals are produced via catalytic oxidation, often using oxygen. Examples include nitric acid (from ammonia), sulfuric acid (from sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by the chamber process), terephthalic acid from p-xylene, and acrylonitrile from propane and ammonia.

Many other chemical products are generated by large-scale reduction, often via hydrogenation. The largest-scale example is ammonia, which is prepared via the Haber process from nitrogen. Methanol is prepared from carbon monoxide.

Bulk polymers derived from ethylene and propylene are often prepared via Ziegler-Natta catalysis. Polyesters, polyamides, and isocyanates are derived via acid-base catalysis.

Most carbonylation processes require metal catalysts, examples include the Monsanto acetic acid process and hydroformylation.

Fine chemicals

Many fine chemicals are prepared via catalysis; methods include those of heavy industry as well as more specialized processes that would be prohibitively expensive on a large scale. Examples include olefin metathesis using Grubbs' catalyst, the Heck reaction, and Friedel-Crafts reactions.

Because most bioactive compounds are chiral, many pharmaceuticals are produced by enantioselective catalysis.

Food processing

One of the most obvious applications of catalysis is the hydrogenation (reaction with hydrogen gas) of fats using nickel catalyst to produce margarine. Many other foodstuffs are prepared via biocatalysis (see below).

Biology

Main article: Biocatalysis

In nature, enzymes are catalysts in metabolism and catabolism. Most biocatalysts are protein-based, i.e. enzymes, but other classes of biomolecules also exhibit catalytic properties including ribozymes, and synthetic deoxyribozymes.

Biocatalysts can be thought of as intermediate between homogenous and heterogeneous catalysts, although strictly speaking soluble enzymes are homogeneous catalysts and membrane-bound enzymes are heterogeneous. Several factors affect the activity of enzymes (and other catalysts) including temperature, pH, concentration of enzyme, substrate, and products. A particularly important reagent in enzymatic reactions is water, which is the product of many bond-forming reactions and a reactant in many bond-breaking processes.

Enzymes are employed to prepare many commodity chemicals including high-fructose corn syrup and acrylamide.

In the environment

Catalysis impacts the environment by increasing the efficiency of industrial processes, but catalysis also plays a direct role in the environment. A notable example is the catalytic role of Chlorine free radicals in the breakdown of ozone. These radicals are formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Cl + O3 ClO + O2

ClO + O Cl + O2

History

In a general sense, anything that increases the rate of a process is a "catalyst", a term derived from Greek , meaning "to annul," or "to untie," or "to pick up." The phrase catalysed processes was coined by Jns Jakob Berzelius in 1836 to describe reactions that are accelerated by substances that remain unchanged after the reaction. Other early chemists involved in catalysis were Alexander Mitscherlich who referred to contact processes and Johann Wolfgang Dbereiner who spoke of contact action and whose lighter based on hydrogen and a platinum sponge became a huge commercial success in the 1820s. Humphry Davy discovered the use of platinum in catalysis. In the 1880s, Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig University started a systematic investigation into reactions that were catalyzed by the presence of acids and bases, and found that chemical reactions occur at finite rates and that these rates can be used to determine the strengths of acids and bases. For this work, Ostwald was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Inhibitors, poisons and promoters

Substances that reduce the action of catalysts are called catalyst inhibitors if reversible, and catalyst poisons if irreversible. Promoters are substances that increase the catalytic activity, particularly when not being catalysts unto themselves.

The inhibitor may modify selectivity in addition to rate. For instance, in the reduction of ethyne to ethene, the catalyst is palladium (Pd) partly "poisoned" with lead(II) acetate (Pb(CH3COO)2). Without the deactivation of the catalyst, the ethene produced will be further reduced to ethane.

The inhibitor can produce this effect by e.g. selectively poisoning only certain types of active sites. Another mechanism is the modification of surface geometry. For instance, in hydrogenation operations, large planes of metal surface function as sites of hydrogenolysis catalysis while sites catalyzing hydrogenation of unsaturates are smaller. Thus, a poison that covers surface randomly will tend to reduce the number of uncontaminated large planes but leave proportionally more smaller sites free, thus changing the hydrogenation vs. hydrogenolysis selectivity. Many other mechanisms are also possible.

Promoters can cover up surface to prevent production of a mat of coke, or even actively remove such material (e.g. rhenium on platinum in platforming). They can aid the dispersion of the catalytic material or bind to reagents.

See also

Chemistry portal

Biology portal

Autocatalysis

BIG-NSE (Berlin Graduate School of Natural Sciences and Engineering)

Catalysts and Catalysed Reactions (a chemistry journal)

Environmental triggers

Enzyme catalysis

Pharmaceutic adjuvant

Phase Boundary Catalysis

Phase transfer catalyst

Ribozyme (RNA Biocatalysis)

SUMO enzymes

Temperature-programmed reduction

Thermal desorption spectroscopy

Kelvin probe force microscope

References

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. "catalyst". Compendium of Chemical Terminology Internet edition.

^ "The 12 Principles of Green Chemistry". United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/principles.html. Retrieved 2006-07-31. 

^ "Genie in a Bottle". University of Minnesota. 2005-03-02. http://www.chem.umn.edu/services/lecturedemo/info/genie.htm. 

^ Masel, Richard I. hemical Kinetics and Catalysis Wiley-Interscience, New York, 2001. ISBN 0471241970.

^ Chemical & Engineering News, 16 February 2009, "Making Water Step by Step", p. 10

^ Robertson, A.J.B. Catalysis of Gas Reactions by Metals. Logos Press, London, 1970.

^ Helmut Knzinger, Karl Kochloefl eterogeneous Catalysis and Solid Catalysts in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a05_313. Article Online Posting Date: January 15, 2003

^ Arno Behr rganometallic Compounds and Homogeneous Catalysis Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a18_215. Article Online Posting Date: June 15, 2000

^ Elschenbroich, C. rganometallics (2006) Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. ISBN 978-3-29390-6

^ "Recognizing the Best in Innovation: Breakthrough Catalyst". R&D Magazine, September 2005, pg 20.

^ "Types of catalysis". Chemguide. http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/catalysis/introduction.html. Retrieved 2008-07-09. 

^ Nelson, D. L.; Cox, M. M. "Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York, 2000. ISBN 1-57259-153-6.

^ K.J. Laidler and J.H. Meiser, Physical Chemistry, Benjamin/Cummings (1982), p.423

^ M.W. Roberts (2000). "Birth of the catalytic concept (1800-1900)". Catalysis Letters 67 (1): 14. doi:10.1023/A:1016622806065. http://www.springerlink.com/content/qm3732u7x7577224/fulltext.pdf. 

^ W.P. Jencks, atalysis in Chemistry and Enzymology McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969. ISBN 0070323054

^ Myron L Bender, Makoto Komiyama, Raymond J Bergeron he Bioorganic Chemistry of Enzymatic Catalysis Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken, U.S., 1984 ISBN 0471059919

External links

Look up catalysis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Science Aid: Catalysts Page for high school level science

W.A. Herrmann Technische Universitt presentation

Alumite Catalyst, Kameyama-Sakurai Laboratory, Japan

Inorganic Chemistry and Catalysis Group, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Centre for Surface Chemistry and Catalysis

Carbons & Catalysts Group, University of Concepcion, Chile

Center for Enabling New Technologies Through Catalysis, An NSF Center for Chemical Innovation, USA

"Bubbles turn on chemical catalysts," Science News magazine online, April 6, 2009.

v  d  e

Basic reaction mechanisms

Nucleophilic substitution

Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN1) Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) Nucleophilic aromatic substitution (SNAr) Nucleophilic internal substitution (SNi)

Elimination reaction

Unimolecular elimination (E1) E1cB elimination reaction Bimolecular elimination (E2)

Related topics

Elementary reaction Molecularity Stereochemistry Catalysis Collision theory Solvent effects Arrow pushing

Chemical kinetics

Rate equation Rate-determining step

Categories: Chemical kinetics | CatalysisHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from September 2009

Raw foodism

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Diets

Raw foodism can include any diet of primarily unheated food, or food warmed to a temperature less than 40 C (104 F) to 46 C (115 F). The most popular raw food diet is a raw vegan diet, but other forms include animal products and/or meat.

Raw veganism stool softener

A raw vegan lunch krill oil

Main article: Raw veganism agave nectar

A raw vegan diet consists of unprocessed, raw plant foods that have not been heated above 46 C (115 F). aw foodists believe that foods cooked above this temperature have lost much of their nutritional value and are less healthy or even harmful to the body. Typical foods include fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds and sprouted grains and legumes.

Some raw vegans can be subdivided into fruitarians, juicearians, or sproutarians. Fruitarians eat primarily or exclusively fruits and nuts. Juicearians process their raw plant foods into juice. Sproutarians adhere to a diet consisting mainly of sprouted seeds.

Personal claims have been made following a raw vegan diet, including weight loss, more energy, clear skin, improved insulin tolerance, and improved overall health. Dr Douglas Graham and Durianrider are noted 100% raw vegan athletes in the raw movement today.

Raw vegetarianism

See also: Vegetarianism

Raw Vegetarianism is a diet that excludes meat, (including game and slaughter by-products like gelatin), fish (including shellfish and other sea animals) and poultry, but allows dairy and eggs. Common foods include fruit, vegetables, sprouts, nuts, seeds, grains, legumes, dairy, eggs and honey. There are several variants of this diet.

Raw animal food diets

Main article: Raw animal food diets

Included in raw animal food diets are any food that can be eaten raw, such as uncooked, unprocessed meats/organ-meats/eggs, raw dairy, and aged, raw animal foods such as century eggs, rotting (fermenting) meat/fish/shellfish/kefir, as well as, to a much higher extent, vegetables/fruits/nuts/sprouts, but generally not raw grains, raw beans, raw soy, etc., because of digestibility and toxicity issues and also because paleolists tend to reject Neolithic or domesticated foods. Raw foods on such diets have not been heated at temperatures above 104 F (40 C). "Raw Animal Foodists" believe that foods cooked above this temperature have lost much of their nutritional value and are harmful to the body. Smoked meats are frowned upon by many Raw-Omnivores. Some make a distinction between hot-smoked and cold-smoked.

Those who eat a raw omnivorous diet usually choose to obtain their meats from free-range and grass-fed sources. This greatly diminishes the risk of harmful bacteria. A study by Cornell University has determined that grass-fed animals have far fewer E. coli (approx. 300 times less) than their grain fed counterparts. Also in the same study, the amount of E. coli they do have is much less likely to survive our first line defense against infection, gastric acid. Grass-fed meat also contains more nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids, than grain-finished meat. Other studies show that E. coli O157:H7, Campylobacter, Salmonella, and other dangerous pathogens have been repeatedly isolated from both grass and grain fed livestock and there are conflicting results regarding whether the levels of pathogens are higher, lower, or the same when animals are fed grass- or grain-based diets.

Examples of raw animal food diets include the Primal Diet, Anopsology (otherwise known as "Instinctive Eating" or "Instincto"), and the Raw, Palaeolithic diet ("otherwise known as the "Raw Meat Diet").

The Primal Diet, is a diet consisting of fatty meats, organ meats, dairy, honey, minimal fruit and vegetable juices and coconut cream, all raw. The founder of the Primal Diet is Aajonus Vonderplanitz. Vonderplanitz has estimated that there are 20,000 followers of his raw-meat-heavy Primal Diet in North America, alone. Books by Vonderplanitz include "The Recipe for Living Without Disease" and "We Want To Live".

There are also those who follow the "Raw Meat Diet", otherwise known as the "Raw, Paleolithic Diet", which is a raw version of the (cooked) Paleolithic Diet, incorporating large amounts of raw animal foods such as raw meats/organ-meats, raw seafood, raw eggs, and some raw plant-foods, but usually avoiding non-Paleo foods such as raw dairy, grains and legumes.

A number of traditional aboriginal diets consisted of large quantities of raw meats, organ meats, and berries, including the traditional diet of the Nenet tribe of Siberia and the Inuit people.

Food preparation

Many foods in raw food diets are simple to prepare, such as fruits, salads, meat, and dairy. Other foods can require considerable advanced planning to prepare for eating. Rice and some other grains, for example, require sprouting or overnight soaking to become digestible. Many raw foodists believe it is best to soak nuts and seeds before eating them, in order to activate their enzymes, and deactivate enzyme inhibitors. The amount of soak time varies for all nuts and seeds.

According to some cookbook authors, preparation of gourmet raw food recipes usually calls for a blender, food processor, juicer, and dehydrator. Depending on the recipe, some food (such as crackers, breads and cookies) may need to be dehydrated. These processes, which produce foods with the taste and texture of cooked food, are lengthy. Some raw foodists dispense with these recipes, feeling that there is no need to emulate the other non-raw diets or increase sales of kitchen appliances.

Freezing food is acceptable, even though freezing lowers enzyme activity. This view is only held by some raw-foodists, with many raw-foodists actually viewing freezing as harmful, though not as unhealthy as cooking.

Several raw food preparation books have been published including Everyday Raw and Entertaining in the Raw by Matthew Kenney (Gibbs Smith 2009),Raw: The Uncook Book: New Vegetarian Food for Life by Juliano Brotman and Erika Lenkert (Regan Books, 1999), Raw by Charlie Trotter, Roxanne Klein, Jason Smith, and Tim Turner (Ten Speed Press, 2003), Raw Food/Real World: 100 Recipes to Get the Glow by Matthew Kenney and Sarma Melngailis (William Morrow, 2005) and RAWvolution: Gourmet Living Cuisine by Matt Amsden (William Morrow, 2006).

Avoiding poisoning

As the consumption of raw foods gains popularity, some potentially unsafe foods have re-entered the diets of humans. However, the following list includes many foods which are rarely promoted by the educated proponents of Raw Foodism, especially beans or legumes.

Buckwheat greens are toxic when raw, particularly if juiced or eaten in large quantities by fair skinned individuals. The chemical component fagopyrin is known to cause severe photosensitivity and other dermatological complaints.

Kidney beans, including sprouts, are toxic when raw, due to the chemical phytohaemagglutinin.

Alfalfa sprouts contain the toxin canavanine.

Some types of raw cassava or cassava flour can be toxic.

Raw eggs contain avidin, a vitamin B7 or biotin inhibitor, which can cause gg white injury. As many as 24 egg whites would have to be eaten to inactivate biotin. Avidin is denatured by heat.

Raw seeds of the genus lathyrus (peas), can cause lathyrism.

Raw brassica species can contain glucosinolate.

Several seeds contain poison, such as Apricot kernels, which contain the toxin cyanide. See Seed#Poison_and_food_safety

Raw parsnips contain furanocoumarin.

Raw foods, particularly raw meat, may contain harmful bacteria and their associated bacterial toxins. Other parasites and viruses may also be present, such as toxoplasma, trichinella, or rotavirus, which may cause serious foodborne illnesses.

Raw milk may contain Mycobacteria bovis (which can cause non-pulmonary tuberculosis).[citation needed]

Raw sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, turnips, rutabaga, canola oil, cassava, pinenuts, mustard, millet, soybeans and peanuts contain small amounts of Goitrogens which can interfere with iodine utilization and cause Hypothyroidism.

Please see the category plant toxins for further relevant articles.

Background

History

Aibert (1060-1140) ate uncooked foods as part of his religious asceticism. Raw foods gained prominence in the West throughout the 1900s, as proponents such as Ann Wigmore and Herbert Shelton stated that a diet of raw fruits and vegetables is the ideal diet for humans. Artturi Virtanen (1895-1973), showed that enzymes in uncooked foods are released in the mouth when vegetables are chewed. Raw foodists extrapolate from such research the supposition that these enzymes interact with other substances, notably the enzymes produced by the body itself, to aid in the digestion process. Promoters of raw foods, such as the Weston-Price Foundation, support the idea that, since no digestive juices are secreted in the upper stomach, the enzymes in the raw foods last for about 30 minutes in the upper-stomach before being destroyed in the lower stomach, thus giving them enough time to break down the raw foods, to some extent.

Leslie Kenton's book, Raw Energy-Eat Your Way to Radiant Health, in 1984 popularized food such as sprouts, seeds, and fresh vegetable juices. The book brought together research into raw foodism and its support of health, citing examples such as the sprouted seed enriched diets of the long lived Hunza people, as well as Max Gerson's claim of a raw juice-based cancer cure. The book advocates a diet of 75% raw food in order to prevent degenerative diseases, slow the effects of aging, provide enhanced energy, and boost emotional balance.

Beliefs

Common beliefs held by raw foodists:

Raw foodist believe that digestive enzymes (such as amylases, proteases, and lipases) aid digestion. Heating food above 104-120 degrees Fahrenheit degrades or destroys these enzymes in food. However, food enzymes are proteins that are mostly denatured in the stomach, and 90% of nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, after these enzymes have been destroyed.

Raw foods include bacteria and other micro-organisms that affect the immune system and digestion by populating the digestive tract with beneficial gut flora. These are generally killed by cooking. In addition, many Raw-Foodists, particularly Primal-Dieters, are believers in the hygiene hypothesis, a concept which focuses on the health benefits of exposure to parasites and harmful bacteria which builds natural resistance.

Raw foods have higher nutrient values than foods which have been cooked. In addition, raw foodists believe processed food and convenience food often contain excitotoxins (flavor enhancers) which can cause excitotoxicity. Foods with added chemicals, preservatives, additives, colouring agents/dyes of any kind are frowned upon by raw-foodists.

Wild foods (particularly edible wild plants) followed by organic whole foods are more nutritious than conventionally domesticated foods or industrially produced foods.

Cooked foods contain harmful toxins which cause chronic disease and other problems, Heating oils and fats can produce trace amounts of trans fats. Heating sugars with proteins or fats can produce advanced glycation end products ("glycotoxins", see also Maillard reaction).

Raw foods like fruits and vegetables are high in antioxidants and Raw Foodists believe they can help to stifle signs of aging.

Eating cooked foods can lead to acidosis.[citation needed]

Raw Foodists believe that opioid peptides, present in cooked foods, are harmful and highly addictive.[citation needed]

Raw food movement

Early proponents include St. Louis Estes, Johnny Lovewisdom, Ann Wigmore and Viktoras Kulvinskas (co-founders of the Hippocrates Health Institute), Arnold Ehret (author and advocate of fasting), Aris Latham of Sunfired Foods, Inc. He is known as the godfather of raw food.Arshavir Ter Hovannessian and Norman W. Walker (who advocated the consumption of juices).

Notable contemporary proponents include several chefs, published authors and lecturers such as Matthew Kenney, Alissa Cohen, Aris Latham, Aajonus Vonderplanitz, David Wolfe, Elijah Joy of Organic Soul, Inc., RawMatt (author of Dominant Health), Philip McCluskey, Daniel Vitalis, Shazzie, Carol Alt, Gabriel Cousens, Frederic Patenaude, Lesa Carlson, Brian Clement and Tonya Kay.

Celebrities following Raw-Animal-Food diets include Mel Gibson (who follows the "Tiger Diet"). Other raw-foodist celebrities include Uma Thurman, Natalie Portman, Woody Harrelson, James Brolin, Frankie Laine, Elijah Joy, Jason Mraz, and Laura Dern.

Currently, there exist many proponents of the Raw Foods lifestyle, that have resources available on proper nutrition and transitional lifestyle diet changes:

Interest in the "Raw Foods Movement" continues to grow today and is especially prevalent in the UK, Germany, Australia and the western United States, like California. Restaurants catering to a raw food diet have opened in large cities, and numerous all-raw cookbooks have been published.

Supercharge Me is a feature length documentary film about the raw foods diet, made by Jenna Norwood, a former public relations consultant turned independent filmmaker, health educator and raw food chef. In the film, inspired by Morgan Spurlock's Super Size Me, Jenna ate only raw foods - i.e. uncooked fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds - for thirty days, to document the effect it would have on her health.

Research

To date, scientific literature describing health and nutrition aspects of raw foods or living foods diets is limited and most studies focus on vegetarian diets, most of which excluded all animal products and derived the majority of calories from uncooked plant matter. Certain studies have indicated detrimental health effects stemming from raw vegetarian and raw omnivorous diets. A 2005 study has shown that a raw vegetarian diet is associated with a lower bone density. One study of raw omnivorous diets shows amenorrhea and underweightness in women. Another one indicates an increased risk of dental erosion with a raw food diet.

Other medical studies on raw food diets have shown some positive and negative health outcomes. According to one medical trial, "long-term consumption of a 70% raw-plant-food diet is associated with favorable serum LDL cholesterol and triglycerides but also with elevated plasma homocysteine and low serum HDL cholesterol" as well as vitamin B-12 deficiency. Another study from Germany found that a "long-term strict raw food diet is associated with favourable plasma beta-carotene and low plasma lycopene concentrations". A study mentioned benefits of a Raw Vegan diet for lowering obesity and hypertension A study has also shown reduced fibromyalgia symptoms for those on a Raw Vegan Diet as well as reduced symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, according to another study.

German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients.

One study comparing pasteurized and unpasteurized breast milk, showed that pasteurizing breast milk for hospital use and milk banks is unnecessary. Another study showed a link between consumption of unpasteurized milk and a lowered prevalence of allergies.

Analysis[by whom?] of the China Project, an international study of epidemiology and nutrition in developing China suggested that a move away from raw unprocessed food in our diet may increase the incidences of common cancers and diseases of affluence such as diabetes, obesity, heart disorders and strokes.[citation needed] The focus of the project was to evaluate a vegetarian diet with a non-vegetarian diet, and not to evaluate the benefits of a raw food diet.

Potential harmful effects of cooked foods

Raw food dieters claim that cooking food produces harmful chemical toxins. Some of these concerns are accepted by science but some are speculative. Registered dietician, Karen Schroeder says, "Neither the American Cancer Society (ACS) nor the National Cancer Institute (NCI) goes so far as to recommend a raw food diet to reduce the risk of cancer from these chemicals. Instead, they stress that following a healthful dietne rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, both raw and cookeds still the best known way to reduce cancer risk."

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 F (100 C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.

Microwaving at high temperatures has been shown to significantly reduce the anti-infective factors in human milk. Microwaving has also been shown to cause the greatest decrease in all studied anti-oxidants in broccoli, compared to other cooking methods. Microwaving has been shown to reduce vitamin B12 levels in beef, pork and milk by 30-40%.

Nitrosamines, formed by cooking at high temperatures and preserving in salt and smoking, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer and stomach-cancer.

Cooking with added sugar or cooking foods that contain sugar (see Maillard reaction) may create Advanced glycation end products, otherwise known as AGEs. AGE's are created during the breakdown of molecules that consist of a protein and a sugar molecule. This reaction occurs both within the body and external to the body. These compounds are absorbed by the body during digestion with about 30% efficiency. Many cells in the body (for example endothelial cells, smooth muscle or cells of the immune system) from tissue such as lung, liver, kidney or peripheral blood bear the Receptor for Advanced glycation end products (RAGE) that, when binding AGEs, contributes to age and diabetes-related chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis, renal failure, arthritis, myocardial infarction, macular degeneration, cardiovascular disease, nephropathy, retinopathy, or neuropathy. Excretion of dietary AGEs is reduced in diabetics and lowering AGE intake may greatly reduce the impact of AGEs in diabetic patients and possibly improve prognosis.

Acrylamide, a toxin found in roasted/baked/fried/grilled starchy foods, but not in boiled or raw foods, has been linked to endometrial, ovarian but not breast cancers. Ingested acrylamide is metabolised to a chemically reactive epoxide, glycidamide. The HEATOX(Heat Generated Food Toxins) project has published a report on acrylamide.

Protein digestibility generally improves by heating, soaking, germination and fermentation. However, reduced protein digestibility is primarily associated with excessive heat, as is found in ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. Frying chickpeas, oven-heating winged beans, or roasting cereals at 200280 C (392536 F) reduces protein digestibility.

Another study has shown that meat heated for 10 minutes at 130 C (266 F), showed a 1.5% decrease in protein digestibility. Similar heating of hake meat in the presence of potato starch, soy oil, and salt caused a 6% decrease in amino acid content.

There are various scientific reports, such as one by the Nutrition Society, which describe in detail the loss of vitamins and minerals caused by cooking.

Criticism and controversies

Food poisoning

Food poisoning is a health risk for all people eating raw foods, and increased demand for raw foods is associated with greater incidence of foodborne illness, especially for raw meat, fish, and shellfish. Outbreaks of gastroenteritis among consumers of raw and undercooked animal products (including smoked, pickled or dried animal products) are well-documented, and include raw meat, raw organ meat, raw fish (whether ocean-going or freshwater), shellfish, raw milk and products made from raw milk, and raw eggs.

Food poisoning attributed to contaminated raw produce has risen ten-fold since the 1970s. Salad, lettuce, juice, melon, sprouts, and berries were most frequently implicated in outbreaks.

Many raw plant foods have been contaminated by dangerous and even deadly microorganisms, including jalapeo and serrano peppers, alfalfa sprouts and other sprouted seeds, green onions, spinach, lettuce, orange juice, apple juice and other unpasteurized fruit juices.

Demand for unpasteurized, or raw, milk is growing among consumers concerned about chemicals, hormones and drugs. Some believe that pasteurization denatures enzymes, proteins and kills beneficial bacteria. According to the FDA, health benefits claimed by raw milk advocates do not exist. "The small quantities of antibodies in milk are not absorbed in the human intestinal tract", says Barbara Ingham, Ph.D., associate professor and extension food scientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. "There is no scientific evidence that raw milk contains an anti-arthritis factor or that it enhances resistance to other diseases."

It has been claimed by raw dairy advocates that government agencies are heavily biased against raw dairy, providing incomplete facts or erroneous statistics.

Nutritional deficiencies

Cooking tenderizes meat, softens plant foods, reduces water content, increases the proportion of edible material and makes food molecules more available to the body. A raw vegan diet may be deficient in calcium, vitamin D, vitamin B12, iron, zinc, protein and calories.

According to scientist and author Harold McGee, meat is cooked for four reasons: to make it safe to eat, easier to chew, easier to digest (denatured proteins are more vulnerable to digestive enzymes), and to enhance flavor.

The bio-availability of some vitamins and antioxidants are increased by cooking. Cooking carrots and tomatoes increases the absorption of some of the antioxidants they contain. Many foods contain antinutrient factors (ANF) that are destroyed by cooking.

Care is required in planning a raw food diet, especially for children. Raw foodists believe that with sufficient food energy, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals, variety and density, people of all ages can be successful at eating raw foods. Dr. Joel Fuhrman, author of Disease-Proof your Child, says there may not be enough vitamin B12, enough vitamin D and enough calories for a growing child on a totally raw vegan diet. Fuhrman fed his own four children raw and cooked vegetables, fruits, nuts, grains, beans and occasionally eggs. However, this nutritionist has made it clear in his books that he advocates 80 percent of our food should be raw, vegetable based, and that more than ten per cent based on animal produce is to increase the risk of disease.

A study surveying people practicing raw food diets of varying intensities found that 30% of the women under age 45 had partial to complete amenorrhoea and that "subjects eating high amounts of raw food (> 90%) were affected more frequently than moderate raw food dieters". The study concluded that since many raw food dieters were underweight and exhibited amenorrhoea "a very strict raw food diet cannot be recommended on a long-term basis".

Some raw vegans believe that to sustain the diet daily inclusion of superfoods and/or supplements are necessary, particularly for children and mothers.

Human evolution

Richard Wrangham, a primate researcher and professor of anthropology has argued that eating cooked food is most "natural" for the human digestive system, because the human digestive system has evolved to take advantage of the easier processing cooking allows. Wrangham believes that cooking explains the increase in hominid brain sizes, smaller digestive tract, smaller teeth and jaws and decrease in sexual dimorphism that occurred roughly 1.8 million years ago. Wrangham suggests that raw meat and vegetables could not have provided the necessary calories to support the normal hunteratherer lifestyle. He states that "no human foragers have been recorded as living without cooking." However, he does not recommend using the past as a guide for what is healthy today, pointing out that in the modern world, eating too many calories is more of a problem than eating too few, making harder-to-digest raw food potentially more attractive.

Other anthropologists oppose Wrangham, stating that archeological evidence suggests that cooking fires began in earnest only 250,000400,000 years ago, when ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint appear across Europe and the middle East. Two million years ago, the only sign of fire is burnt earth with human remains, which other anthropologists consider coincidence rather than evidence of intentional fire. The mainstream view among anthropologists is that the increase in human brain-size was due to a shift away from the consumption of nuts and berries to the consumption of meat.

See also

Fruitarianism

Orthopathy

Anopsology

Cooking

Taboo foods

Essene Bread

Rejuvelac

Sattvic diet

References

This page may also be able to help find problematic links. Several templates are available for formatting. (October 2009)

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Music of Israel

China Product


National identity

Music in Israel is an integral part of national identity. Beginning in the days of the pioneers, Hebrew songs and public singalongs (Shira beTsibur) were encouraged and supported by the establishment. "Public singalongs were a common pastime [of the early settlers], and were for them a force in defining their identity", wrote Nathan Shahar. This view of music as nation-building continues to this day. "We are in the midst of creating a culture", says Nahum Heyman, one of Israel's leading folk music composers and music historians. Jewish immigrants from Europe, Asia, the Middle East and elsewhere brought with them their musical traditions, melding and molding them into a new Israeli sound.

Russian folk music nursery decoration

Shir Hamitpachat, sung by Arik Sinai stocking holders

Many of the Zionist immigrants who arrived before 1935 came from Russia. They brought with them the folk tunes and musical style of Russia. Songs in the early days were often contrafacta Russian folk tunes with translated or new lyrics in Hebrew. An example is Shir Hamitpachat, ("Song of the Kerchief") a traditional Russian folk song (Sinij Platochek, ) with Hebrew lyrics by the Israeli poet and lyricist Natan Alterman[nb 1]. These Russian-style tunes are generally in a minor key, and often accompanied by accordion, or by guitar imitating the sound of the balalaika. advent wreath

Eastern European klezmer music

"Numi Numi" sung by Ahuva Tsadok

Klezmer music was also brought to the country by the immigrants of the early 20th century. Many Hassidic and klezmer melodies found their way into the canon of Israeli folk music, with lyrics translated from the Yiddish, or new Hebrew words. An example is Numi Numi (Sleep My Child), a song composed by Joel Engel based on a Hassidic lullaby, with lyrics by Yehiel Heilprin[nb 2].

Rock and pop music

Since the late 1960s, Israeli popular music has been deeply influenced by mainstream pop and rock music from the United Kingdom and the U.S. Iconic Israeli 1970s rock groups such as Kaveret and Tamooz and singer-songwriters such as Shalom Hanoch and Miki Gavrielov, laid the foundations for what is today the rich and varied scene of Israeli pop and rock. Mixing Western pop and rock with the original style of Israeli folk music and Oriental Jewish music, particularly Yemenite, Greek and Andalusian-Moroccan, creates together the original and unique sound of Israeli music today.

Among the leaders in Israeli music are singers and bands such as: Etti Ankri, David D'Or, Aviv Gefen, Rita, Shlomo Artzi, HaYehudim, Ivri Lider, and Dana International. Both Lider and International often sing songs dealing with their own sexual preferences Lider's song "Jesse" is about unrequited homosexual love, and International, a transsexual, began her singing career as a drag queen. Other pop stars include Ninet Tayeb, Harel Skaat and Shiri Maimon all winners of the Israeli talent search TV show "Israeli Pop Idol." Maimon represented Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest" in 2005, and reached top 4 out of over 25 countries, with her ballad "Hasheket Shenishar" (the silence that remains).

Middle Eastern music

"HaPerach BeGani" sung by Zohar Argov

The earliest composers of Hebrew folk music were influenced by the sounds of the local Palestinian Arab music. Later, Oriental musical traditions were brought by Jewish immigrants from Arab lands from Morocco, Yemen, Iraq, Egypt and elsewhere. These immigrants developed an eclectic Mediterranean style called "Muzika Mizrahit" (Oriental music), which became increasingly popular in the early 1960s and was later influenced by popular Greek music (Rembetiko), whilst at the same time, influencing Israeli pop and rock. Muzika Mizrahit combines eastern and western elements: the ensemble includes Middle Eastern instruments, such as the oud, the kanun, the Arabic violin, the darbouka and the Greek bouzouki, alongside electric and acoustic guitars, pianos and other western instruments. The singers add Arab-style melismatic ornamentation, (silsulim in Hebrew), and often sing in a nasal tone, similar to Arab music. The melodies are often modal, swinging between major and minor, and diction is guttural. While Arab music is traditionally homophonic, based on melodic patterns called maqamat, Muzika Mizrahit is closer to Greek music, has harmonic accompaniment and usually uses a western, 12-tone scale.

The distinctive East-West sonorities of Muzika Mizrahit have left their imprint on Israeli popular music. An example is Zohar Argov's HaPerach BeGani ("The flower in my garden"), with lyrics and music by Avihu Medina[nb 3].

Traditional Jewish Yemenite music

Yemenite singer Bracha Zefira

"Shtu HaAdarim" sung by Esther Ofarim

The music of Yemenite Jews was particularly influential in the development of Israeli music because it was seen by early Zionists as a link to their biblical roots. The music of the ancient Hebrews, wrote the musicologist A.Z. Idelsohn, "is preserved in memory and practice in various Jewish centers ... Yemen, in South Arabia, [is] a community that lived practically in seclusion for thirteen hundred years..." There was a Yemenite Jewish community in Palestine before 1900, and the European settlers who came in the 1920s were enamored of the Yemenite style. Many of the early Zionist folksongs were westernized versions of Yemenite songs. In the 1930s and 1940s, Yemenite singer Bracha Zefira researched and recorded many Yemenite songs, and also sang original compositions in the Yemenite style. An example is the song "Shtu HaAdarim" (Drink, the Flock)[nb 4], with words by Alexander Penn and music by Nahum Nardi.

Yemenite music reached a world audience in the 1980s as a result of the efforts of Israeli singer Ofra Haza, whose album Yemenite Songs became an international hit with world music fans. Haza grew up in a traditional Yemenite family who lived in Tel Aviv's poor Hatikva neighborhood. She became famous for singing pop music, but later in her career became something of a cultural ambassador for her community, both in Israel and internationally. Several of her most famous tracks, such as "Im Nin Alu", were reworkings of traditional Yemenite songs, many composed by Rabbi Shalom Shabazi, a medieval poet and mystic whose spiritual and artistic achievements are universally revered in the Yemenite community. Shabazi's poetry dealt with both religious and secular themes, giving Yemenite music a wider lyrical range than many other forms of traditional Jewish music, which tend to be liturgical in nature.

Early Hebrew national style

"Shadmati", sung by Tsemed HaParvarim

This is an eclectic style created by the early Zionist settlers. Beginning in the early 1920s, the pioneers sought to create a new style of music that would strengthen ties with their Hebrew roots and distinguish them from Diaspora Jewry and its perceived weakness. Elements were borrowed a bit from Arabic music and, to a lesser extent, traditional Yemenite and eastern Jewish music. The songs were often homophonic, modal, and limited in range. Examples of this emerging style include "Shadmati" by Yedidia Admon[nb 5], and "Shibbolet Basadeh" by Matityahu Shelem.

Greek, Latin American, Ethiopian and other influences

Israeli folk singer Chava Alberstein.

Greek-style bouzouki music became increasingly popular in the early 1960s. Aris San, a non-Jewish Greek singer who moved to Israel and became an Israeli citizen, was the driving spirit behind this trend. One of Aris San's hit songs was "Sigal" (lyrics by Yovav Katz). Aris San, who owned the Zorba club in Jaffa, wrote songs for Aliza Azikri (Bahayim hakol over, Yesh ahava ata omer), that effectively broke down the barriers between Israeli song and the world of Greek and Mizrahi music. The songs of the iconic Greek singer Stelios Kazantzidis were translated into Hebrew and performed by the country's leading singers.

A number of young musicians traveled to South America in the late 1960s, and brought back Latin rhythms and sonorities which became a force in popular music through the 1970s. An example is the song "Noah" by Matti Caspi.

The American folk movement of the 1960s and 1970s influenced the Israeli national style, and Israeli folksingers, among them Chava Alberstein[nb 6] patterned themselves after Judy Collins and Joni Mitchell. In the 1960s, guitar duos such as the Dudaim and the Parvarim performed not only "canonical" Israeli songs, but also Hebrew versions of American and British folk songs.

"Ayliluli" by Chava Alberstein

The 1970s saw the growth of a new eclecticism in Israeli music. Rock, jazz and other genres began to strike roots, influenced by worldwide trends but also adding elements that were uniquely Israeli.

The Idan Raichel Project, a successful pop/ethnic group formed in the 2000s, merges Ethiopian and Western music. Raichel collaborated with Ethiopian Jewish immigrants to produce a unique sound, combining Electronic music sounds, classic piano, electric guitar, traditional drums and Ethiopian-style singing, with its complex quartertone scales and rhythms. The songs are sung in a combination of Hebrew and Amharic.

Land of Israel style

Despite the great diversity in Israeli music today, a corpus of canonical songs has developed, known as "Shirei Eretz Yisrael" "Songs of the Land of Israel". These songs, composed from 1920 to the mid-1970s, have certain identifying musical characteristics:

"Moshe" sung by Yaffa Yarkoni

Use of minor keys. The canonical songs are almost universally in minor. Songs based in the Russian or klezmer traditions normally use the harmonic minor (that is, with an elevated seventh), while songs in the New Hebrew style use natural minor, often with a diminished second leading to the tonic. Songs in this style are also sometimes modal, or semimodal, ending on the dominant rather than the tonic. An example is Moshe[nb 7], by Immanuel Zamir, sung by Yaffa Yarkoni.

"At Adama" sung by Ran Eliran

Hora, debka and other dance rhythms. These dance rhythms often have strong offbeats and asymmetric meters. They accompany popular Israeli folk dances. An example of a debka rhythm is At Adama[nb 8], based on a Bedouin melody, and sung by Ran Eliran.

Use of the darbuka, the tambourine and other instruments associated with middle eastern music.

"Anu Nihiyeh HaRishonim" sung by IDF Choir

Lyrics that relate to the Israeli experience. As one might expect in a country that has faced major wars and military conflicts since its inception, army life and wars are common themes in Israeli songwriting. Interestingly, very few of the war songs are marching songs, and none denigrate the Arab enemies. Most are melancholy, focusing on separation and loss during war, and the longing for peace. Many songs are about pioneering, building up the land, and love of hiking and nature. Others are based on biblical texts. A typical pioneer marching song is Anu Nihiyeh HaRishonim[nb 9] (We will be the first), with words by Yosef Haftman to a traditional melody.

"Ein Adir K'Adonai" sung by Bracha Tsfira

A distinctive vocal style. Israeli singers especially those of Yemenite origin or who specialize in more middle eastern style songs tend to sing with a guttural, throaty enunciation. A folk legend contends that these singers would drink water from goatskin watersacks, and the hairs of the goat would stick in their throats. An example of this style can be heard in the song Ein Adir KeAdonai,[nb 10] (There is none so great as God), a traditional liturgical melody sung by Bracha Zefira.

Early history

Jewish Brigade soldiers dancing the Hora

The first efforts to create a corpus of music suitable for a new Jewish entity that would eventually become Israel were in 1882. This was the year of the First Aliyah, the first wave of Jewish immigrants seeking to create a national homeland in Palestine. As there were no songs yet written for this national movement, Zionist youth movements in Germany and elsewhere published songbooks, using traditional German and other folk melodies with new words written in Hebrew. An example of this is the song that became Israel's national anthem, "Hatikvah". The words, by the Hebrew poet Naftali Herz Imber, express the longing of the Jewish people to return to the land of Zion. The melody is a popular eastern European folk melody.

In 1895 settlers established the first Jewish orchestra in Palestine. The orchestra was a wind band, located in the town of Rishon LeZion, and played light classics and marches.

Avraham Zvi Idelsohn, a trained cantor from Russia and a musicologist, settled in Jerusalem in 1906, with the objective of studying and documenting the musics of the various Jewish communities there. At the time, there were a number of Jewish enclaves in Jerusalem, for Yemenites, Hassids, Syrians and other Jewish ethnic groups. Idelsohn meticulously documented the songs and musical idioms of these groups. He also made the first efforts to bring these songs to the attention of all Jewish settlers, with the aim of creating a new Jewish musical genre.

Idelsohn was joined in Palestine by a few more classically trained musicians and ethnomusicologists, including Gershon Ephros in 1909 and, later, Joel Engel in 1924. Like Idelsohn, Engel worked to disseminate traditional ethnic tunes and styles to the general Jewish public of Palestine.

Birth of a new Hebrew national style

A book of Hebrew songs by Hanina Karchevsky, published 1927

The Second Aliyah, beginning in 1904, saw an increase in composition of original songs by Jewish settlers in Palestine. Among the earliest composers of folk songs were Hanina Karchevsky ("BeShadmot Beit Lehem"), and David Ma'aravi ("Shira Hanoar").

Over the next 30 years, Jewish composers in Palestine began to seek new rhythmic and melodic modes that would distinguish their songs from the traditional European music they had been brought up on. Leaders of this musical movement were Matityahu Shelem ("VeDavid Yefe Eynaim", "Shibbolet Basadeh"), Yedidia Admon ("Shadmati"), and others. These composers sought to imitate the sounds of Arabic and other Middle Eastern music. They used simple harmonies, and preferred the natural minor to melodic and harmonic minors used by European music. They especially eschewed the interval of the augmented second, part of the "gypsy minor" scale used typically in klezmer music. "Its character is depressing and sentimental", wrote music critic and composer Menashe Ravina in 1943. "The healthy desire to free ourselves of this sentimentalism causes many to avoid this interval."

Some musicians of the period, like Marc Lavry, wrote in both the new Hebrew style and the European style in which they were trained. For example, "Zemer" is a song in the new style; Dan HaShomer is an opera in the European classical tradition. Others, like Mordechai Zeira, lamented the fact that they did not write in the new Hebrew mold. Zeira, one of the most prolific and popular composers of the period ("Hayu Leylot", "Layla Layla", "Shney Shoshanim"), referred to his inability to write in the new style as "the Russian disease".

Emanuel Zamir worked in the 40s and 50s in a genre known as "shirei ro'im" (shepherd songs). He combined Bedouin music with Biblical-style lyrics, often accompanied by the recorder.

Music as a nation builder

The movement to create a repertoire of Hebrew songs, and specifically a distinctive musical style for those songs, was seen not merely as a creative outlet, but as a national imperative. This imperative which influenced the literature, theater and graphic arts of the period as well as music was to seek cultural roots of the new Israeli nation in the culture of the ancient Hebrews of the Bible. The characteristics of the new Hebrew style, contended composer Yitzhak Edel, are "remnants of ancient Hebrew music that have struggled to survive the years of diaspora... the primitive life of our settlers, who broke away from the European civilization, sought a musical expression that would suit their world view."

In light of the national importance of creating a new Hebrew repertoire, the effort received support of national institutions. The Histadrut Labor Union, which, prior to the founding of the state of Israel served many of the functions of a government, created the "Merkaz LeTarbut" (Cultural Center), which published many songbooks, and subsidized the composition of works by Hebrew composers. Public singalongs were actively encouraged. The kibbutz movements distributed songsters and established the singalong as a central daily event in kibbutz life. Public singalongs were also seen as a way of teaching Hebrew to new immigrants from Europe and, later, from Middle Eastern countries.

The state radio has also been a powerful force in promoting the Hebrew song. Until 1990, all radio and television stations were government owned and controlled. As such, they were leading arbiters of taste in Palestine and later in Israel. "... the stations perceived it their duty to initiate special projects for the preservation of the Israeli song heritage and to encourage the writing and recording of 'authentic' music."

Nearly every youth carried a notebook to jot down the songs they would sing with their friends.

This viewhat Israeli music is a defining element in the creation of Israeli cultureontinues to this day, and influences artists in all musical genresop, rock, and classical.

Musical cabarets

Starting in the 1920s, cafe and cabaret music became popular in Palestine, and became an important formative force in Israeli music. Before the establishment of the state, there were three leading cabarets HaQumQum (The Kettle), HaMatate (The Broom), and Li-La-Lo. These cabarets staged variety shows that combined political satire, drama and song.

"Emet El ShimHa" sung by Shoshana Demari

Israeli poet Natan Alterman

The cabarets were launching pads for the careers of some of Israel's leading popular music stars: Shoshana Damari, who popularized Yemenite-style singing worldwide, started performing as a teenager at Li-La-Lo; Yaffa Yarkoni also started as a cabaret singer. Composers Nahum Nardi ("Shtu HaAdarim", "Cakhol Yam HaMayim"), Moshe Vilensky ("BeKhol Zot Yesh Ba Mashehu", "Hora Mamtera"), Daniel Sambursky ("Shir Haemek", "Zemer HaPlugot"[nb 11]), and others created songs that became part of the canonical Israeli repertoire. Poet Natan Alterman wrote many of the lyrics.

The cabarets also contributed to diversity in Israeli music. Many of the songs were in a popular, light style, distinct from the New Hebrew style or the Russian folk style that was prevalent. Many songs were in the major key rather than minor, had upbeat rhythms and included tangos, sambas and other Latin styles.

Cabarets and musical reviews continued after the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948.

Aliyah of musicians in the 1930s

The rise of Nazism in Europe forced many Jewish musicians to leave. Some of these musicians came to Israel. The immigration included some of the leading classical musicians of Europe, including dn Prtos, concertmaster of the Berlin Philharmonic, Paul Ben-Haim, composer and opera conductor, and composer Alexander Boskovitz.

Just as writers of popular music sought a new Hebrew style, many classical composers sought new modes of composition that would give expression to their new national identity. "... One cannot continue in this country writing works which are based on purely western concepts", wrote music critic David Rosolio in 1946. "The landscape, the lifestyle, the environment, all require a change and fundamentally different approach." Boskovitz in his "Semitic Suite" for piano (1945) writes in a homophonic style with a drone accompaniment and repeated notes, imitating the sound of the Arabic oud and kanun. Ben-Haim wrote "Sonata A Tre" for cembalo, mandolin and guitar (1968), which also has a distinctly Middle Eastern sound.

Israel Philharmonic Orchestra

The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra performs in the desert town of Beersheba, 1948.

By 1935, Jewish musicians throughout Europe were faced with dismissal, persecution, and expulsion. To meet the pressing need to rescue these musicians, concert violinist Bronislaw Huberman decided to form an orchestra in Palestine both as a safe haven and as a unique musical endeavor. Huberman recruited musicians from Europe's leading orchestras, and the Palestine Philharmonic made its debut in December 1936, under the baton of Arturo Toscanini.

The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra has been a leading force in Israeli music and culture. It has debuted many works by Israeli composers, and has helped launch the careers of many Israeli musicians.

The orchestra has played a number of concerts that have had historic significance for Israel. In 1967, immediately after the 1967 war, conductor Leonard Bernstein led the orchestra on a tour to the Sinai desert, the site of fighting only days before. The symphony also performed on the Lebanese border in the 1980s, playing to an audience of mixed Israelis and Lebanese who gathered on both sides of the border fence to listen.

Music director Zubin Mehta, though not himself an Israeli, speaks some Hebrew and is an important figure in the Israeli musical scene.

Music and the military

The military establishment in Israel, and the role of the military in Israeli culture, have been decisive influences on Israeli music.

"Eliphelet" sung by one of the lehakot tsva'iyot

In the wake of decades of conflict with the Arabs, the themes of war and peace have become an integral part of Israeli music. From pre-state times until the present day, many songs deal with war, sacrifice, loss, heroism, and the longing for peace. Extremely militaristic songs that glorify triumph over the enemy are not the standard in the Israeli repertoire. Rather, most songs dealing with war are melancholy in tone. An extreme example is the song "Eliphelet": to a halting melody in a minor key by Sasha Argov, the song (lyrics by Natan Alterman) tells of a boy "without a penny's worth of character", who is killed in combat for an unthinking error of judgment.[nb 12].

Singer Yardena Arazi, who started her career in the Lehakot Tsva'iyot.

The influence of the military on Israeli music, however, goes far beyond its being a source of inspiration for songs. The military establishment has been an active promoter of music, through its corps of military performance groups, and through its army-run radio station, Galei Tsahal.

Since the 1950s, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) has run performing groups called Lehakot Tsva'iyot (Army Ensembles). These groups, comprising enlisted soldiers with talent or performing experience, tour bases and field positions to entertain the troops. Performing original materials meticulously prepared and performed, these groups became leaders in the Israeli music and entertainment field. Many of Israel's most popular songs were written for the Lehakot Tsva'iyot for example, "Dina Barzilai" (words: Haim Hefer, music: Sasha Argov), "Halleluya" (words and music: Yair Rosenblum), "Yeshnan Banot" (words: Yoram Tahar-Lev, music: Yair Rosenblum), and many more. Dubi Zeltzer, considered the founding father of Israeli pop music, wrote the songs for the Nahal Brigade entertainment troupe.

The Lehakot Tsva'iyot were incubators for performers and composers who, from the 1960s to the present, have become Israel's stars. Among the artists who began their careers in the Lehakot are Arik Einstein, Chava Alberstein, the members of Kaveret, Yehoram Gaon[nb 13], Yardena Arazi, Shlomo Artzi, Etti Ankri, and David D'Or. Composers and lyricists who made their names writing material for the Lehakot include Naomi Shemer, Yoni Rechter, Nurit Hirsh, and Yair Rosenblum.

"Nehederet" sung by Yehoram Gaon

Galey Tsahal, the IDF-run radio station, has been a force in promoting original Israeli music. Galey Tsahal began broadcasting in 1950. It devoted much of its broadcast time to popular music.

The music of the Lehakot and of Galey Tsahal was not specifically military music; most of the songs produced and broadcast were general songs. However, the IDF did see music as an important propaganda tool, and actually sponsored the composition of songs on subjects it deemed important. For example, lyricist Haim Hefer was invited to spend a week accompanying the elite commando group "Haruv", and to base a song on his experience. The result was "Yesh Li Ahuv BeSayeret Haruv" (I have a lover in the Haruv commando unit) (music: Yair Rosenblum).

1967 as a turning point

The 1967 war marked an important turning point in Israeli culture. In the words of Amos Elon, "in the Six Day War of 1967, the Israeli people came of age... it marked the transition from adolescence to maturity." The period after the war saw a burgeoning of cultural activity within a few years, the number of art galleries increased by a third, the number of theaters doubled, and a proliferation of restaurants, night clubs, discothques opened. Economic growth went from 1 percent per annum before the war to 13 percent the following year.

The Israeli music scene opened up to the rest of the world. Rock music, which prior to the war had almost no audience and was almost never played on the state radio, started drawing audiences. Muzika Mizrahit, the underground style of popular music enjoyed by Israelis of Sephardic origin, gradually gained legitimacy and recognition. Israeli musicians performed abroad with increasing frequency, and European and American musicians came to Israel to perform.

In this growth of diversification, much Israeli music lost its national flavor, and became largely inspired by international styles. The Israeli preoccupation with defining a national style faded. "I don't like the attempt to be ethnic very much", said rock musician Shalom Hanoch in an interview. "I don't search for roots [in my music], my roots are within me... I don't have to add oriental flavor for people to know that I am from the Middle East."

Nonetheless, many Israeli musicians, both popular and classical, continued to be concerned with defining a distinctly national identity in their music.

Evolution of the music industry

Starting in 1967, the productions of the Lehakot Tzva'iyot became much more elaborate, and for the next five years these groups played a defining role in Israeli music. However, in the 1980s the Lehakot started to decline, until they were discontinued altogether.

Taking their place as a breeding ground for new musical talent were the two classical music academies in Israel The Rubin Academy in Jerusalem and the Buchmann-Mehta School of Music in Tel Aviv as well as two private schools that teach mostly jazz and popular music (The Rimon school in Ramat Hasharon and the Hed school in Tel Aviv).

Until the end of the 1980s, the Israeli government, primarily through its control of radio and television, continued to play a central role in shaping the musical tastes of Israelis. In 1965, a feud between rival concert promoters was behind conservative forces in the government that refused to allocate foreign currency to pay for the Beatles to play in Israel. From 1960 to 1980, Israeli radio and television promoted music by running frequent song contests. Success in a song contest was often the key to success for an artist in those days. By the same token, many rock and Muzika Mizrahit artists complained that the radio and television discriminated against their music, preventing the commercial success of these increasingly popular genres.

The song contests received an important boost in 1978 when the Israeli song "A-Ba-Ni-Bi", sung by Izhar Cohen, with words by Ehud Manor and music by Nurit Hirsh, won first prize in the Eurovision song festival. Israel won first prize again the following year with "Halleluyah" (lyrics: Shimrit Or, music: Kobi Oshrat, performed by Gali Atari and Milk and Honey), and a third time in 1998, when the Israeli transsexual rock star Dana International sang "Diva" (lyrics: Yoav Ginai, music: Svika Pick).

However, with the commercialization of Israeli radio and television in the 1990s, the hegemony of the media as an arbiter of musical taste declined. In their place, recording companies, impresarios and clubs became increasingly important in finding new talent and advancing careers. The music industry in the last ten years has changed from one dominated by state institutions to one more typical of European and American industries.

Popular genres

Early Israeli rock

Main article: Israeli rock

Rock singer Shalom Hanoch

From pre-1967 beginnings in marginal clubs in Tel Aviv, Israeli rock music has grown to a musical force worldwide. With hundreds of bands, dozens of clubs, and many star performers, Israeli rock has grown to be "the dominant music culture in Israel."

The first successful rock group in Israel was "The Churchills", formed in 1967 by guitarists Haim Romano and Yitzhak Klepter. Singer Arik Einstein, a graduate of the Lehakot Tzva'iyot and a rising star in the Israeli music world, chose them as his backup group in 1969, and together they were the first group to offer a publicly acceptable rock sound.

In the 1970s, the Israeli rock idiom was developed by:

Svika Pick, first Israeli rocker to appear in punk and glam-style outfits

Shmulik Kraus, Josie Katz and Arik Einstein who banded together to form the trio "Hahalonot Hagvohim" (the High Windows).

Medley of songs from rock album "Shablul", by Arik Einstein and Shalom Hanoch

Kaveret, with singer Gidi Gov and guitarist and composer Danny Sanderson. Kaveret, formed in 1972, was instant success. Songs from their album "Sippurei Poogy" (Stories of Poogy) are still played on Israeli radio today.

Shalom Hanoch, composer, guitarist and singer[nb 14]. The album "Sof Onat Hatapuzim" (The end of the Orange Season), of his songs, was released in 1976. It had the hardest rock sound of any group yet, and is considered a landmark in Israeli rock history.

Progressive rock and folk

Main article: Israeli rock

Alongside the development of Israeli rock music, the tradition of the folk style continued. Singers like Chava Alberstein, Yehoram Gaon and Naomi Shemer continued to write and perform songs in the canonical "Land of Israel" style. Naomi Shemer's songs, including "Yerushalayim Shel Zahav" (Jerusalem of Gold), "Hoy Artsi Moladeti" (Oh my Land My Homeland, lyrics Shaul Tchernichovsky), "Horshat HaEkaliptus" (The Eucalyptus Grove), have become icons in the patriotic repertoire. Much of her success, including "Yerushalaim Shel Zahav", was due to the song contests of the time.

LaKahat et Yadi BeYadeh, by Yoni Rechter, sung by Yehudit Ravitz

Bridging the parallel developments of Israeli rock and the continuation of the Land of Israel tradition was a group of musicians who sought to create an authentic Israeli style that would incorporate elements of the new rock sound. These artists include Yehudit Ravitz,[nb 15] Yoni Rechter, Shlomo Gronich, Matti Caspi, as well as rock pioneers Gidi Gov, Danny Sanderson and Arik Einstein. Their style of progressive rock often adopted the lyrical ballad style of the canonical repertoire, and mixed traditional instrumentslute and recorder, darbuka, and acoustical guitarith electric guitars, trap sets and synthesizers. Unlike typical hard rock, with its repetitive common-time rhythms and straightforward chord progressions, the songs of these artists were often complex rhythmically and harmonically. Matti Caspi's song "Noah", for example, has a Latin feel, with strong jazz-like offbeats, chromatic harmonic accompaniments, and words relating to the biblical story of Noah. David Broza made flamenco style music popular in the late 70s and 80s.

Kobi Oz of Teapacks

Rock was something of a musical revolution for Israel. However, unlike the rock music of America in the 1960s and 1970s, it was not always an expression of social revolution. Israeli rock, up until 1985, with the appearance of Aviv Gefen, almost never dealt with the themes of drugs, sex, youthful anger and alienation (though Arik Einstein's "Shuv Lo Shaket" is an exception), and revolution. Its stars, with the exception of Shalom Hanoch and Svika Pick, were clean-cut Israelis, mostly with neatly trimmed hair, who had served in the army and were exemplary citizens.

Aviv Gefen changed that. Starting his career at age 17, Gefen appeared on stage in drag and heavy makeup, bragged about his evasion of the draft, and sang about drugs, sex and alienation in a hard-rock style reminiscent of Punk Rock. His music struck a deep chord among Israeli youth. He also symbolised the break with the old traditions, as his music was in sharp contrast stylistically to that of his father, Yehonatan Geffen, one of the leading lyricists of the day. Aviv Gefen is still considered as one of Israel's biggest selling contemporary male artist today, though his style and early provocative appearance has dramatically mellowed in recent years.

Israeli pop and dance music

Rock musician Berry Sakharof.

Since 1980, the number of Israeli groups has multiplied, with hundreds of groups singing in all modern styles. Leading performers have included the internationally-acclaimed dance music singer Ofra Haza (singer of "Im Nin'Alu", from the album Shaday ), Berry Sakharof,[nb 16] often referred to as "The Prince of Israeli Rock"; Rami Fortis, the groups "Efo HaYeled?" (Where is the Child?), "Ethnix", "Teapacks", "Tislam", "Mashina", "Zikney Tzfat" (The Elders of Safad), "Rockfour", "HaMakhshefot" (The Witches), and Monica Sex.

Singers who mix rock and pop elements with the traditional songs of the Land of Israel are usually achieving tremendous popularity and considered as leading acts in Israeli music today, singers such as Rita, Shlomo Artzi, Achinoam Nini, Ivri Lider, Aviv Gefen, Dana Berger, Evyatar Banai, Ninet Tayeb, Shiri Maimon,Dana International, Sharon Haziz, Mika Karni, David D'or, Metropolin and many more. Most of these artists also like to mix some elements of electronic sounds of Dance music, so you can find style influences of pop icons such as Madonna and Kylie Minogue in Israeli music as well.

Trance, electronic and house music

"Raash Lavan" by Berry Sakharov

Trance music is popular in Israel, and some Israeli trance artists have gained international recognition, among them Alien Project, Astrix, Astral Projection, Maor Levi, and Infected Mushroom. Offer Nissim is one of the most internationally acclaimed contemporary house music producers. In recent years, Israel has been developing innovative experimental electronic musicians such as Bloke, focusing on glitch, IDM and complex experimental sounds and patterns.

Rap and hip hop

Main article: Israeli hip hop

Israel has developed its own brand of rap and hip hop with groups such as Hadag Nahash, Subliminal, Sagol 59 and Kele 6 performing Israeli hip hop.

Classical music

After 1967, classical composers in Israel continued their quest for an Israeli identity in art music. Some Israeli composers have chosen explicitly Jewish or Middle Eastern materials for their compositions.

Betty Olivero uses melodies and modes from her Sephardic Jewish background, building layers of overtones and pantonal harmonies on top of them, so the effect is at the same time very dissonant yet clearly familiar. Despite its modernity, her music has a distinctly Sephardic and tonal character. An example is "Achot Ketana", based on a 13th century Sephardic prayer, and quoting from a Bach chaconne.

Tsippi Fleischer sets classical poetry in Arabic, Ugarith, and other languages to contemporary music. She uses many features of Arabic music in her compositions, including the use of maqamat, with complex microtonic intonation, combined with traditional Arabic, Western classical and modern instrumentation. An example is "The Goddess Anath", based on scripts in Ugarith, a composition in multimedia for woman's voice, violin, piano, percussion and dancer.

Andre Hajdu, an immigrant from Hungary, has arranged Hassidic tunes for jazz ensemble.

Mark Kopytman, a Russian immigrant, has composed symphonic and chamber works based on Jewish themes. An example is his composition "Memory" for string orchestra, which recalls the klezmer music of Eastern Europe.

Daniel Barenboim conducting the West-Eastern Divan, a project bringing together Israeli and Arab musicians.

Other Israeli composers of note, including Noam Sherif, Ami Maayani, Yehezkel Braun, Yitzhak Yedid, Lior Navok, and Zvi Avni, have also used Jewish and Israeli themes in their compositions.

In addition to the Israel Philharmonic, a number of other Israeli orchestras have achieved renown. These include the Jerusalem Broadcast Orchestra, which is supported by the state radio and television authority; the Rishon LeZion Orchestra, and the Camerata Orchestra. One of the motivations for creating these orchestras was to provide employment for Russian immigrant musicians, who arrived in Israel with a high professional level but could not find jobs in their field.

The New Israel Opera Company was founded in 1985. This was the first successful attempt to establish a permanent repertory opera, after a series of failed attempts starting in the 1940s In 1995, the Opera moved into a permanent home in the Golda Center in Tel Aviv.

Israel has produced some of the world's leading performers and conductors. These include pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim, and a large number of violinists, among them Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman, Gil Shaham, Ivry Gitlis, Gil Shohat and Shlomo Mintz.

The Jerusalem Quartet is a string quartet that has achieved international acclaim. Other leading chamber groups include the Jerusalem Trio, the Tel Aviv Soloists, the Carmel Quartet and the Aviv Quartet.

Mizrahi music

Main article: Mizrahi music

Israeli immigrant communities from Arab countries have over the last 50 years created a blended musical style that combines Turkish, Greek, Arabic, and Israeli elements. As opposed to the New Hebrew Style, which was the conscious creation of Eastern European immigrants trying to define their new Israeli identity, the Muzika Mizrahit style is truly spontaneous and indigenous. Initially met with hostility by the mainstream cultural institutions of Israel, it has now become a major force in Israeli culture.

The Muzika Mizrahit movement started in the 1950s with homegrown performers in the ethnic neighborhoods of Israel the predominantly Yemenite "Kerem Hatemanim" neighborhood of Tel Aviv, Moroccan neighborhoods and neighborhoods of Iranian and Iraqi immigrants who played at weddings and other events. They performed songs in Hebrew, but in a predominantly Arabic style, on traditional instruments the Oud, the Kanun, and the darbuka. Jo Amar and Filfel al-Masry, were two early proponents of Maroccan and Egyptian extraction. In the 1960s, they added acoustic guitar and electric guitar, and their sound became more eclectic. Vocalists typically decorated their singing with trills and other oriental-style ornaments, and delivery was often nasal or guttural in character. Intonation was typically Western, however; singers did not use the quartertone scales typical of Arabic music.

Zohar Argov

Lyrics were originally texts taken from classic Hebrew literature, including liturgical texts and poems by medieval Hebrew poets. Later they added texts by Israeli poets, and began writing original lyrics as well. An example is the song "Hanale Hitbalbela" (Hannale was confused), sung by Yizhar Cohen. The lyrics are by the modern Hebrew poet and lyricist Natan Alterman, to a traditional tune.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, a few of these performers began distributing their songs on cassette tapes. The tapes were an instant hit. They were sold in kiosks in the rundown shopping area around the Tel Aviv bus station, and the music became known derogatorily as "Muzikat Kassetot", cassette music, or "Bus station music". Performers during this period included Shimi Tavori, Zehava Ben[nb 17] and Zohar Argov, whose song "HaPerah BeGani" (the Flower in my Garden) became a major hit. Argov, a controversial character who died in 1987 by suicide while in jail, became known as the "King of Muzika Mizrahit"; he became a folk hero, and a movie was made of his life.

Despite the obvious popularity of this music, the state radio eschewed Muzika Mizrahit almost entirely. "The educational and cultural establishment made every effort to separate the second generation of eastern immigrants from this music, by intense socialization in schools and in the media", wrote the social researcher Sami Shalom Chetrit.

The penetration of Muzika Mizrahit into the Israeli establishment was the result of pressure by Mizrahi composers and producers such as Avihu Medina, the overwhelming, undeniable popularity of the style, and the gradual adoption of elements of Muzika Mizrahit by mainstream artists. Yardena Arazi, one of Israel's most popular stars, made a recording in 1989 called "Dimion Mizrahi" (Eastern Imagination), and included original materials and some canonic Israeli songs. Also, some performers started developing a fusion style of Muzika Mizrahit, Israeli, Greek, rock, and other styles. These included Ehud Banai, Yehuda Poliker, and Shlomo Bar, whose group "HaBrera HaTivit" (The Natural Choice, or the Natural Selection) incorporated Sitars, tabla, and other Indian instruments to create a new, "World" style.

"Pashut VeAmiti" by Zehava Ben

The acceptance of Muzika Mizrahit, over the 1990s, parallels the social struggle of Israelis of Mizrahi origin to achieve social and cultural acceptance. "Today, the popular Muzika Mizrahit has begun to erase the differences from rock music, and we can see not a few artists turning into mainstream... This move to the mainstream culture includes cultural assimilation", writes literary researcher and critic Mati Shmuelof.

Hassidic and Orthodox Jewish music

This section requires expansion.

The Orthodox Jewish community of Israel, and its parallel community in the United States, have developed a unique form of Hassidic rock, which has become popular throughout the young orthodox community. This musical form combines the sonorities, instrumentation and rhythms of rock music with melodies which are in a klezmer style, and words taken mostly from religious texts. This rather anomalous combination is produced, performed and broadcast in nearly complete segregation from secular Israeli music. It is never heard on secular radio stations, or in secular public performances. It is broadcast on religious radio stations and played at religious events.

One of the pioneers of Hassidic rock was the "singing rabbi," Shlomo Carlebach,[citation needed] who developed a large following in New York in the 1960s, singing religious songs in a folk style reminiscent of Peter, Paul and Mary. Israeli Hassidic rock performers include the group "Reva LeSheva" and singers Adi Ran and Naftali Abramson. Because of an halakhic restriction on women singing to mixed audiences, there are no women in Hassidic rock groups. Concerts will usually be gender segregated.

While the style is embraced enthusiastically by the religious Zionist movement, including Gush Emunim, it is not without its opponents within the Haredi community. Some Haredi rabbis have "a hard time with someone screaming out `Yes, there's the Holy One, blessed be He' at the top of his lungs all of a sudden", says Kobi Sela, religious music critic.

Israeli Arab music

Main article: Palestinian music

The Arab community in Israel, comprising 16.5 percent of Israel's population, has developed it own unique forms of musical expression.

Amal Murkus talks about her art

Until the early 1990s, little original music was produced by this community and the focus was on the great stars of the Arab world - Umm Kulthum, Fairuz, Farid al-Atrash, and others. Original local music did not achieve popularity or wide distribution among the local population until the 1980's. For the most part, local performers at weddings and other events played music written in Egypt, Lebanon, and Syria.

With the onset of the 21st century, local stars emerged, among them the internationally acclaimed oud and violin virtuoso Taiseer Elias, singer Amal Murkus[nb 18], and brothers Samir and Wissam Joubran. Israeli Arab musicians have achieved fame beyond Israel's borders: Elias and Murkus frequently play to audiences in Europe and America, and oud player Darwish Darwish (Prof. Elias's student) was awarded first prize in the all-Arab oud contest in Egypt in 2003.

Living as an Arab minority within Israel has been an influence on Israeli Arabs, which is reflected in their music. Israeli Arab musicians are in the forefront of the quest to define their emerging identity. Lyrics deal with issues of identity, conflict, remembrance and peace. For example, Kamilya Joubran's song "Ghareeba", a setting of a poem by Khalil Gibran, deals with a sense of isolation and loneliness felt by the Arab Palestinian woman[nb 19]:

Ghareeba, by Kamilya Joubran

A Stranger - female

A stranger in this world..

A stranger..

In estrangement there is cruel loneliness

And painful desolation

But it makes me forever think

Of a magical home I know not

Several groups have emerged, such as Elias's Bustan Avraham, The Olive Leaves, and Shlomo Gronich's Israeli-Palestinian ensemble in which Jews and Palestinians perform together, creating a fusion style of music. Joint musical bands such as Zimrat Yah, Shams Tishrin, Blues Job, and Sahar, appear all over Israel, particularly in the Galilee.The Olive Leaves gave a successful concert tour in Jordan in 1995, with lead singer Shoham Eynav (Jewish) singing songs in both Hebrew and Arabic.

Israeli Arabs have also branched out into other musical styles. Palestinian hip-hop artist Tamer Nafar, founder of the rap group DAM, became an independent rap star after a politically charged dispute with Israeli rapper Subliminal. His music expresses the frustration and alienation that many Israeli-Palestinians feel. The rock music of Basam Beromi, singer of the group "Khalas" (Enough!), protests against the strictures of traditional Arab society. The song "What have we come to?", for example, tells the story of a young girl in love, whose family murders her for violating strict traditional codes of courtship. London-trained guitarist Michel Sajrawy combines jazz, rock, and gypsy with classical Arab music.

While music education for Israeli Arabs is less developed, there has been a steady growth of opportunities in this sector. The Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance has an advanced degree program, headed by Taiseer Elias, in Arabic music. In 2007, the first precollege conservatory for the Arab-speaking population opened in Shfaram.

Iraqi Jewish music

See also Music of Iraq

The Iraqi Jews who immigrated to Israel in the early 1950s have preserved their own musical tradition. In the first half of the 20th century, almost all professional instrumental musicians in Iraq were Jewish. They played in the Imperial Orchestra, in the Baghdad radio orchestra, and in the nightclubs of Baghdad. Leading performers included composer and Oud player Ezra Aharon, violinist Salih Al-Kuwaiti and his brother, oud player Dawud Al-Kuwaiti, composer Salim Al'Nur, singer Salima Pasha, and others. Between 1949 and 1950, almost all these professional musicians fled Iraq for Israel. The Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA) Arabic Orchestra was instrumental in sustaining their musical traditions in Israel..

Many of these musicians were forced to seek employment outside the music business, but they continued to perform in the community. "Our musical tradition continues", said Suad Bazun, singer and daughter to a family of leading Iraqi musicians. "Today the grandchildren and the great-grandchildren continue to fill their homes with the songs of Iraq."

Yiddish and Ladino music

"Lemele", traditional Yiddish song, sung by Chava Alberstein

Concerned that Yiddish folk music would disappear, Sinai Leichter traveled throughout Eastern Europe to collect these melodies and published a multi-volume anthology, which he dedicated to Golda Meir. Yiddish and Ladino are enjoying a revival in Israel. A number of private language institutes and universities offer programs in these languages, which were the spoken languages of Jews of the Diaspora. A Yiddish theater group, the YiddishShpiel, in Tel Aviv, offers popular musical shows. Several leading Israeli artists have recorded songs in these languages, including an album in Ladino by Yehoram Gaon, and an album in Yiddish by Chava Alberstein[nb 20].

Music of migrant workers

In 2006, there were an estimated 165,000 migrant workers in Israel. They come from the Philippines, Thailand, India, China, Africa, Eastern Europe, and elsewhere. Each community of migrant workers has its own musical culture. A visitor to the neighborhood of the Central bus station in Tel Aviv will hear strains of popular music from Addis Ababa, Bangkok, and Manila. Foreign workers also have their local popular music groups, that perform at parties and on holidays.

Internationally-acclaimed Israeli singers

Etti Ankri - a singer-songwriter, and former Female Singer of the Year in Israel, has also performed in the United States, England, and India. Ankri has been called a "rock genius", a "poet of Israeli spirituality," and "the contemporary voice of... Israel."

Keren Ann - performs in France.

Mike Brant

David D'Or - A countertenor, he has been Israel's Singer of the Year, and Israel's representative in the Eurovision Song Contest. By February 2008, nine of his albums had gone platinum. D'Or performs a wide variety of music, including pop, rock, dance music, world music, Israeli folk songs, classical, opera, baroque arias in the original Italian, klezmer, holy music, ancient chants, and Yemenite prayers. He has performed throughout Europe, Asia, and the US.

Ofra Haza - Apart from her success in Israel, Haza was well-known in Europe and North America in the 1980s and 1990s for her unique blend of Yemenite music and electronic dance sounds. She represented Israel in the 'Eurovision Song Contest' in 1983, and won second place with "Chai" (Alive). Haza collaborated with Iggy Pop, Paula Abdul, Sarah Brightman, and others. She played Yocheved in the Oscar-winning animation movie "The Prince Of Egypt," and sang a song, "Deliver Us."

Dana International - She achieved fame in Europe and North America, and became a gay icon after winning the "Eurovision Song Contest" in 1998 with her song "Diva".

Ishtar - (born Eti Zach), vocalist of the French dance music group Alabina.

Yael Naim - Her song "New Soul" was used by the Apple computer company in an advertising campaign. She was the first Israeli solo artist to have a top 10 hit in the United States. The song peaked at # 7 on the Billboard Hot 100.

Achinoam Nini - Known outside of Israel as Noa, Nini sings in many languages and styles, but her signature sound is a mix of traditional Yemenite and modern Israeli music.

Gene Simmons of Kiss, the popular American band from the 1970s, was born in Haifa.

Music education

Israel offers myriad opportunities to study music, from early childhood through adulthood. Music education in Israel enjoys considerable government support, a vestige from the pre-state days when musicmaking was seen as a tool for teaching Hebrew to new immigrants and for building a national ethos.

The Israel Ministry of Education supports 41 music conservatories throughout the country. Conservatories offer programs for all ages. One of the most notable of these is the Stricker Conservatory of Tel Aviv, which, besides offering lessons and courses, sponsors a number of concert series and master classes by visiting artists.

A number of institutions of higher education offer degrees in music and musicology. In addition to the two music academies in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, both Tel Aviv University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem offer advanced degrees in musicology. The Hebrew University is also home to the Jewish Music Research Center. Bar-Ilan University has BA, MA and PhD programs in musicology and a program in music therapy; in 2007, its Safed College opened a three-year program in ethnic music including Klezmer, Hassidic, Western and Eastern music styles. Levinsky College offers a teaching certificate of a BA degree in music education.

Music education does not end with degree programs. Israel offers numerous opportunities for adult musicians to continue learning and performing, even if they do not pursue this as a career. There are two organizations for amateur chamber music players The Israel Chamber Music Club, for string players, and Yanshuf for wind players. There are more than 20 community orchestras scattered throughout Israel for amateur musicians.

Music and politics

Israel is a country deeply riven by political differences, and music has often become associated with different political factions. Gush Emunim supporters have taken a repertoire of old religious songs and invested them with political meaning. An example is the song "Utsu Etsu VeTufar" (They gave counsel but their counsel was violated). The song signifies the ultimate rightness of those steadfast in their beliefs, suggesting the rightness of Gush Emunim's struggle against anti-settlement policy by the government.

"Yerushalayim Shel Zahav" sung by Shuli Natan

In 1967 war, Israel annexed Arab neighborhoods surrounding Jerusalem, a move widely supported at the time, but which has engendered controversy since. A few weeks before the war, Naomi Shemer wrote Jerusalem of Gold, sung by Shuli Natan, extolling the beauties of Jerusalem[nb 21]. That song, and others by Naomi Shemer have become associated with those in Israel who believe that Israel has no obligation to forgo territories occupied in 1967..

In February 1994, Kach supporter Baruch Goldstein massacred 29 Arab worshipers in the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron. While the act was universally condemned by the Israeli establishment, some extremists praised it. After the massacre, members of the utra-right Kach movement adopted "Barukh HaGever", a song often played at Jewish weddings with its own line dance, because the Hebrew title can be interpreted as "Blessed be the Man" or "Baruch the Hero."

See also: Protest music#Israeli protest music

Minutes before Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was murdered at a political rally in November 1995, Israeli folk singer Miri Aloni sang the Israeli pop song Shir Lashalom (Song for Peace). This song, originally written in 1969 and performed extensively by the Lahaqot Tsvayiot at the time, has become one of the anthems of the Israeli peace camp.

During the Arab uprising known as the First Intifada, Israeli singer Si Heyman sang Yorim VeBokhim (Shoot and Weep), written by Shalom Hanoch, to protest Israeli policy in the territories. This song was banned briefly by the state-run radio, but later became popular.

Pink Floyd's Another Brick in the Wall is used as a protest song by many opponents of Israel's barrier in the West Bank, which is now half finished. The lyrics have been adapted to: "We don't need no occupation. We don't need no racist wall."

Since the onset of the Oslo Process and, more recently, Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, protest songs became a major avenue for opposition activists to express sentiments. Songs protesting these policies were written and performed by Israeli musicians, such as Ariel Zilber, Shalom Flisser, Aharon Razel, Eli Bar-Yahalom, Yuri Lipmanovich, Ari Ben-Yam, and many others.

Selected discography

Rough Guide to the Music of Israel (2006)

Putumayo Presents: Israel (2007)

See also

Hatikvah, the Israeli national anthem

Jewish music

List of Israeli musical artists

List of Jewish musicians

Sources for songs

^ Version of the song here is sung by Arik Sinai, from his album "Shirim Hozrim". Music sample published by www.Songs.co.il

^ Most full-length songs included here are taken from http://www.nostalgia.org.il/amuta/freemp3/music/, a project to release historic recordings of Israeli music into the public domain. Readers who cannot play music in the Wikipedia standard ogg format can hear the song in mp3 format at http://www.nostalgia.org.il/amuta/freemp3/music/Sleep_My_Child.mp3.

^ Music sample is taken from www.songs.co.il

^ Song sample from www.songs.co.il

^ Song sample taken from www.songs.co.il

^ Song "Ayliluli" taken from website www.songs.co.il

^ Available in mp3 format here.

^ Available in mp3 format here.

^ Available in mp3 format here.

^ Available in mp3 format here.

^ Song is from www.nostalgia.com

^ Music sample taken from www.Songs.co.il

^ Music sample of Yehoram Gaon's song "Nehederet" is extracted from the playback on Gaon's personal website, www.yehoramgaon.com.

^ Medley of songs from the album "Shablul" by Arik Einstein and Shalom Hanoch is from www.songs.co.il

^ Song sample "Lakahat Et Yadi BeYadeh" taken from http://www.songs.co.il.

^ Sample of song "Raash Lavan" taken from www.songs.co.il

^ Sample of Zehava Ben's song "Pashut VeAmiti" taken from www.songs.co.il.

^ Video interview and song taken from http://www.freemuse.org/sw589.asp.

^ Song sample is from Kamilya Jubran - Ghareeba

^ "Shirei Am BeYiddish" (1977), produced by NMC. Song sample is from www.songs.co.il

^ Song sample, sung by Shuli Natan, taken from www.songs.co.il

References

^ Published surveys of Israeli music begin with the First Aliyah, in the 1880s. See, for example, Hirshberg (1995), Regev and Seroussi (2005), and Shahar (1999).

^ Shahar (1999), 501.

^ Heyman (2007).

^ cf Eliram (1995), Bohlman (1988), Gluzman (1987).

^ Bohlman (1988), pp 117-119.

^ Eliram (1995), p. 14

^ Ivri Lider, "Jesse", single released in the US by Sony (2007)

^ Dana International Official Website

^ Bohlman (1988), p 118.

^ See below, Music of Israel#Muzika Mizrahit

^ Idelsohn (1948), p. 23.

^ For a biography of Haza, see The Musicians Guide.

^ Edel (1946), p 16.

^ From margins to mainstream, Haaretz

^ Songstress brought Greek music into the mainstream

^ The Greek pillar of Israeli music, Haaretz

^ "[Songs of the Land of Israel] represented a corpus of songs in modern Hebrew that were canonized by their performance at specific social contexts and by their inclusion in songsters published by the major cultural institutions of the Yishuv." Regev and Seroussi (2004), p 51.

^ Eliram (1995), p 11

^ Gluzman (1987)

^ Shahar (1999), p 495.

^ Hirshberg (1995), p 25.

^ Idelsohn (1948).

^ Shahar (1999), pp 503-506

^ cf Edel (1946), Ravina (1943).

^ Menashe Ravina (1943), p 16.

^ Hacohen (1998).

^ Yitzhak Edel (1946), p 17.

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), p. 30

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), p. 34

^ Netiva Ben-Yehuda "Autobiografia Beshir Vezemer" (an autobiography in song)

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), pp 71-90.

^ Hirshberg (1995), pp 157-183.

^ Rosolio (1946).

^ The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), pp 90-113, 35-37

^ http://64.233.183.132/search?q=cache:WFj7Q8mO2KoJ:https://conf.haaretz.co.il/hasen/spages/1028379.html+dubi+zeltzer+tragedy+of+my+life&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), p 35

^ a b Elon (1971), p 33.

^ From margins to mainstream, Haaretz

^ Shalom Hanoch, interview on Reshet Gimmel radio station, 1988, quoted in Regev and Seroussi (2004), p 157.

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), pp 90-113

^ a b Welcome to the Buchmann-Mehta School of Music

^ Rimon - School of Jazz and Contemporary Music

^ a b Regev and Seroussi (2004), p 37

^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1015020.html

^ http://www.theinsider.com/news/1149933_Paul_McCartney_gig_revives_Israeli_Beatles_tale

^ For example, Svika Pick: "They never played my music on the radio as much as they played other musicians. Fact." (in an interview on the Reshet Gimmel radio station, October 1986)

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), p 137.

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), p. 138

^ http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1215331132910&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull

^ Hirshberg (1995), pp 117-119.

^ Regev and Seroussi (2004), pp 191-235

^ Saar, Tzafi (July 26, 2007). "Zohar Argov on the corner of Tupac Shakur". Haaretz. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/886370.html. Retrieved November 6, 2007. 

^ "Zohar". IMDb. 1993. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108660/. Retrieved November 6, 2007. 

^ Chetrit (2004).

^ Shmuelof (2006).

^ Battling over hearts and minds with Hasidic songs and live performances

^ Battling over hearts and minds with Hasidic songs and live performances

^ Sela (2007).

^ Israel Bureau of Statistics (2007). This does not include residents of the West Bank or Gaza.

^ Regev (1993), p. 29

^ Ben Zeev (June 28, 2007)

^ Regev (1993), p. 4.

^ Kamilya Jubran - Ghareeba

^ "Extending the Olive Branch" (1995)

^ "The Great Divide" (March 11, 2005)

^ Haaretz (October 26, 2004)

^ Michel Sajrawy Downloads :: calabashmusic.com

^ Ben Zeev (April 29, 2007)

^ Kojaman (1999) p 42.

^ Manasseh (2004), p 7

^ World Music Central - Your connection to World Music

^ Music and Dance Newsletter of SOAS

^ CD Baby: ABRAHAM SALMAN: Saltana

^ Dvori (2006)

^ http://www.jhcwc.org/Newsletter%20Sept%202005.pdf

^ Tel Aviv University, Bar Ilan University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem offer degree programs in these languages

^ "Romanzot BeLadino" (1969), produced by NMC/CBS

^ "FactBox"(March 11, 2007)

^ See, for example, Solomon (December 29, 2006)

^ Toward a New Diaspora-Israeli Relationship, Yossi Klein Halevi, juf.org

^ Coleman, Michelle, "Singing a song of harmony; Israeli singing sensation David Dr does his bit to bring peace into the world one song at a time," The Australian Jewish News, 2/27/08, accessed 4/30/09

^ Lester, Paul, "David Dr: Meet Israel classical hero," The Jewish Chronicle, 7/18/08, accessed 4/30/09

^ Levin, Darren, "Acclaimed Israeli performer to tour," The Australian Jewish News, 12/17/07, accessed 4/30/09

^ McDonald, Patrick, "Womadelaide's wonderful welcome as 2008 line-up announced," Adelaide Now, 12/3/07, accessed 4/30...