Serial Digital Video Out

China Product


Proprietary status

Intel's non-standard extension of the PCI express interface is subject to a patent application Mapping SDVO functions from PCI express interface (United States Application 20050172037) filed on 12 December 2003.

According to the Intel patent application, the PCI Express standard lacks a "mechanism to make use of a digital display codec using the PCI Express connector." This limitation is attributed to PCI Express defining only a fixed-frequency interface with significant packet encoding overheads, whereas "digital displays need to have variable clocking and transfer rates and need very little overhead for the transfer of video data". sony vaio ux

The patent relates a "presence detect" mechanism to detect SDVO-type expansion cards and enable a pin-remapping of the PCI Express socket to convey SDVO signals. sony vaio ux280p

As of January 2007, Intel has not publicly documented an intent to promote SDVO as an industry standard, despite its potential applicability to any PCI express platform with an Integrated Graphics Processor (IGP), or the desirability from the consumer perspective that SDVO adaptor cards be compatible and freely interchangeable among all such systems. ibm thinkpad t23

Instead, Intel is actively promoting the development of SDVO drivers across the broad range of operating systems which run on the Intel 9xx platform. In particular, Intel has established the website intellinuxgraphics.org to promote a fully open sourced drivers supporting all video technologies embodied in their 9xx-series platform.

The upshot is that SDVO cards are compatible with a narrow range of Intel-only hardware platforms, but a broad range of software environments within that platform.

Applications

SDVO encoders can be integrated into the motherboard or placed on a PCI express card, allowing video connectors to be added or exchanged at low cost. SDVO adaptor cards can be designed for the following purposes (from Intel ADD2 quoted verbatim):

Dual DVI: dual independent DVI displays

TV-out (Composite): primary or secondary TV-out display (standard definition in PAL or NTSC formats)

HDTV-Out: primary or secondary HDTV display

VGA-Out: drive second RGB independent display

DVI: primary or secondary DVI display

LVDS: LVDS interface for integrated flat panel

ADD and MEC form factors

SDVO adaptor cards are designated as ADD (advanced digital display) or MEC (media expansion card) or the equivalent ADD2+.

Older ADD cards were AGP-based and did not provide a standard interface, posing difficulties for driver development. The second generation ADD2 cards are PCI express and employ a standard interface. There are, however, two distinct flavours of ADD2 cards: ADD2-N (normal) and ADD2-R (reverse). "Normal cards use the first channels on the PCI-E connector while Reverse cards use the last channels." The ADD2-N cards are reported to work without fuss under Linux with Intel chipsets ranging from the 915 through to the 965.

A different source claims that ADD2-N are for ATX form-factor systems while ADD2-R is for BTX form-factor systems. However, some BTX systems require ADD2-N (e.g. HP dc5700), so you will have to consult your system documentation.

According to Reseller Advocate (RAM magazine) a Media Expansion Card (MEC) is "an x16 PCIe card with an SDVO silicon module for VGA, DVI, S-Video, composite, or component output combined with an x1 PCIe analog TV tuner" introduced as a "945G platform add-on descended from the old ADD and ADD2 cards."

The application note for the 945G describes the SDVO card interface as requiring a full x16 PCI-E slot.

Intel chipsets supporting SDVO

Intel documents SDVO as existing within the chipsets integrating an Intel Graphics Media Accelerator (GMA 900 through 3000 families).

GMA X3000

The Intel G965 series chipsets implement the GMA X3000 graphics controller, the consumer engine of the Intel Graphics Media Accelerator 3000 family. From the Intel Desktop board DG965RY Technical Product Specification, section 1.5.1.4 "Advanced Digital Display (ADD2/ADD2+) Card Support":

The GMCH routes two multiplexed SDVO ports that are each capable of driving up to a 200 MHz pixel clock to the PCI Express x16 connector. The SDVO ports can be paired for a dual channel configuration to support up to a 400 MHz pixel clock. When an ADD2/ADD2+ card is detected, the Intel GMA X3000 graphics controller is enabled and the PCI Express x16 connector is configured for SDVO mode. SDVO mode enables the SDVO ports to be accessed by the ADD2/ADD2+ card. An ADD2/ADD2+ card can either be configured to support simultaneous display with the primary VGA display or can be configured to support dual independent display as an extended desktop configuration with different color depths and resolutions.

This chipset allows the ADD2/MEC design to support TV-out (composite video), TMDS for DVI 1.0, LVDS, single device operating in dual-channel mode, VGA output, HDTV output, HDMI/UDI support (when used with the HD Audio Link).

References

Intel Embedded Graphics Drivers FAQ

Intel Desktop Board DG965RY Technical Product Specification

Intel ADD2 adaptor card

Intel Graphics Drivers intro -- documents devices supported

RAM explains MEC

ADD2-N and ADD2-R explained by Linux kernel developer

ADD2 explained -- with comments about ADD2 and form-factors

External links

Intel application note that accompanied the Intel 945G chipset introduction

Silicon Image offers an SiI1364 / SiI1362 chipset aimed at board designers who wish to implement SDVO products

Chrontel also provides some chip level SDVO solutions

Conexant provides chip level solutions for video encoding

IEI SDVO interface VGA/DVI graphic card

x.org ADD2/ SDVO card notes

Categories: Intel products

Caterpillar Inc.

China Product


www.cat.com

Caterpillar Inc. (NYSE: CAT) is a United States-based corporation headquartered in Peoria, Illinois. Caterpillar (commonly referred to simply as CAT) is, according to their corporate website, "the world's largest manufacturer of construction and mining equipment, diesel and natural gas engines, and industrial gas turbines".

Famous for their products featuring continuous tracks and a distinctive yellow paint scheme, Caterpillar produces a wide range of heavy equipment, including the range of Caterpillar bulldozers. Former presidents George W. Bush and Bill Clinton have visited the Peoria area to see the company, and President Barack Obama visited in February 2009 on a stopover on his way to Lincoln celebrations in Springfield. sash window lock

Caterpillar is one of the thirty companies whose stock is tracked in the Dow Jones Industrial Average. It is a Fortune 500 company, ranked number 50 in 2008, and first in its industry, with more than $30 billion in assets. door magnetic lock

Contents kwikset door knobs

1 History

1.1 Acquisitions

2 Business lines

2.1 Vehicles

2.2 Engines

2.3 Caterpillar Defence Products

2.4 Caterpillar Electronics

3 Product distribution

4 Management

4.1 Current board of directors

5 Employment

5.1 Labor problems

6 Notable achievements and controversies

6.1 "Excellent company" designation

6.2 Environmental impacts

6.3 Israeli military sales and conversions

7 References in popular culture

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

//

History

Two Holt 45 gas crawler tractors team up to pull a long wagon train in the Mojave Desert during construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1909

Caterpillar D2 on display in the Serpentine Vintage Tractor Museum, Serpentine, Western Australia

The story of Caterpillar Inc. originates in the late 19th century, when Daniel Best and Benjamin Holt experimented with ways to fulfill the promise that steam tractors held for farming. By 1904, these large steam-powered tractors had been plowing California fields for 14 years, and occasionally got bogged down in the soft soil, especially after heavy rains. Once stuck in the mire, they were difficult to pull free, even with teams of horses. Their great weight typically rested on four metal wheels.

One solution employed to alleviate this problem was to lay a temporary plank road ahead of the steam tractor, but this was time-consuming, expensive, and interfered with earthmoving. Holt came up with the idea to carry the road with the vehicle. On November 24, 1904 he added wooden block-linked treads around the idlers on Holt No.77, his test tractor. The results were impressive, and the modern tractor was born. Caterpillar became famous for its Caterpillar 30 and its Caterpillar 60 tractors.

In 1909, Benjamin Holt bought the abandoned but relatively new manufacturing plant of a tractor company that had failed in East Peoria, Illinois. The location offered Holt everything he needed in a manufacturing center, and despite the hefty amount of capital needed for retooling the plant, the venture proved so profitable that by 1911 the factory employed 625 people. Around that time, Holt Manufacturing began exporting its tractors to Argentina, Mexico, and Canada, in addition to their domestic sales. The Holt Manufacturing Company later pioneered the use of the continuous track during World War I. Their crawler tractors inspired the first military tanks, which helped end World War I.

Caterpillar formed on April 15, 1925 with the merger of Holt Manufacturing Company of Stockton, California and the C. L. Best Gas Traction Company of San Leandro, California, forming the Caterpillar Tractor Co. Sales the first year were US$13 million. By 1929, sales climbed to $52.8 million, and CAT continued to grow throughout the Great Depression of the 1930s.

After the companies merged, Caterpillar went through many changes, including the adoption of the diesel engine. During World War II, Caterpillar products found fame with the Seabees, Construction Battalions of the United States Navy, who built airfields and other facilities in the Pacific Theater of Operations. During the post-war construction boom, the company grew at a rapid pace and launched its first venture outside the U.S. in 1950, marking the beginning of Caterpillar's development into a multinational corporation.

Acquisitions

In addition to increasing sales of its core products, much of Caterpillars growth has been through acquisitions, including:

Company

Location

Date

Products

Notes

Trackson

Milwaki

1951

Traxcavators (tracked Loaders) and Pipelayes

"Traxcavator" became a Cat brand

Towmotor

Mentor, OH

1965

Forklifts

Later became Mitsubishi Caterpillar Forklifts, 80% owned by Mitsubishi

Solar Turbines

San Diego, CA

1981

Natural gas turbines

Founded in 1927 as Prudden-San Diego Airplane Company; assets acquired from International Harvester

Barber Green

Minneapolis, MN

1991

paving products

Renamed Caterpillar Paving Products

Krupp MaK Engines

Kiel, Germany

1997

Marine diesel engines

Renamed Caterpillar Motoren (but still uses MaK brand name)

Perkins Engines

Peterborough, UK

1998

Small diesel engines

Produces both Cat and Perkins branded engines

F.G. Wilson

Larne, Northern Ireland

1999

Generators

Produces both Cat and Olympian branded gen-sets

Hindustan Motors Earthmoving Equipment Division

Chennai, India

2000

Construction equipment

Acquired from Hindustan Motors Group and renamed Caterpillar India

Elphinstone

Burnie, Australia

2000

Underground mining equipment

Renamed Caterpillar Underground Mining

Sabre Engines Ltd.

United Kingdom

2000

Marine engines

Renamed Caterpillar Marine Power UK. Produces both Cat and Perkins-Sabre branded engines

Wealdstone Engineering Ltd.

Rushden, United Kingdom

2004

Remanufacturer of gasoline and diesel engines

Williams Technologies, Inc.

Summerville, South Carolina

2004

Remanufacturer of automatic transmissions, torque converters and engines

Turbomach SA

Riazzino, Switzerland

2004

Packager of industrial gas turbines and related systems

Progress Rail

Albertville, Alabama

2006

Railroad equipment remanufacturing

Hindustan PowerPlus Ltd.

Mathagondapalli, India

2006

Engine components and heavy-duty diesel engines

Buyout of joint venture formed in 1988. Renamed Caterpillar Power India Private Ltd. Merged into Caterpillar India in 2008.

Eurenov

Chaumont , France

2007

Automotive component remanufacturing

Blount International, Inc. - Forestry Division

Portland, Oregon

2007

Timber harvesting and processing equipment, loaders and attachments

Shandong Engineering Machinery (SEM)

China

2008

Construction equipment

LOVAT

Canada

2008

Tunnel boring machines

Shin Caterpillar Mitsubishi

Sagami & Akashi, Japan

2008

Construction equipment

Joint venture since 1963, with purchase of majority became Caterpillar Japan Ltd.

MGE Equipamentos & Servios Ferrovirios

Brazil

2008

Railroad equipment remanufacturing

Division of Caterpillar's Progress Rail

Gremada Industries

West Fargo, North Dakota

2008

Remanufacturing transmissions, torque converters, and final drives

JCS Co., Ltd.

South Korea

2009

Seal technology

A subsidiary of Jinsung T.E.C. Co., Ltd., a South Korea-based manufacturer that produces undercarriage components

Business lines

Caterpillar boots

As of the first quarter of 2006, 44% of Caterpillar's sales are to overseas customers. Caterpillar products are sold in nearly 200 countries. The company has a worldwide network of 220 dealers: 63 dealers in the United States and 157 in other countries. Caterpillar products and components are manufactured in 51 plants in the United States and 59 plants in Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, the People's Republic of China, Poland, Russia, Singapore, South Africa and Sweden. Caterpillar also licenses the manufacturing of Caterpillar-branded clothing, hats, footwear, and other consumer products.

Caterpillar's historical manufacturing home is in Peoria, Illinois, where its world headquarters and core research and development activities are located. Although Caterpillar has "farmed out" much of its local parts production and warehousing to outside firms, it still has four major plants in the Peoria area: the Mapleton Foundry, where diesel engine blocks and other large parts are cast; the East Peoria factory, which has assembled Caterpillar tractors for over 70 years; the Mossville engine plant, built after World War II; and the Morton parts facility.

Vehicles

Main article: List of Caterpillar models

Cat 365B demolition vehicle in action

Caterpillar has a list of some 400 products for purchase through its dealer network. Caterpillar's line of vehicles range from tracked tractors to hydraulic excavators, backhoe loaders, motor graders, off-highway trucks, wheel loaders, and agricultural tractors. They are used in construction, road-building, mining, forestry, energy, transportation and material-handling industries.

Caterpillar D350D Articulated Off Road Truck

Caterpillar is the world's largest manufacturer of wheel loaders. The medium size (MWL) and large size (LWL) are designed at their Aurora, Illinois facility. Medium wheel loaders are manufactured at: Aurora, Illinois; Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan; Gosselies, Charleroi, Belgium; Piracicaba, So Paulo, Brazil; India and the People's Republic of China. Large wheel loaders are manufactured exclusively in the United States on three separate assembly lines at Aurora, Illinois.

Some of the company's current and historic vehicles include:

Track-type tractors (bulldozers)

Caterpillar 60

D-series (diesel)

Caterpillar D4

Caterpillar D5

Caterpillar D6

Caterpillar D7

Caterpillar D8

Caterpillar D9

Caterpillar D10

Caterpillar D11

Pipelayers

Caterpillar 589

Caterpillar 578

Caterpillar 583K

Caterpillar 572F

Caterpillar 572G

Caterpillar 572RII

Caterpillar 561C

Caterpillar 561D

Caterpillar 561N

Motorgraders

Caterpillar 12H Global

Caterpillar 140M

Caterpillar 14M

Caterpillar 140H Global

Caterpillar 160M

Caterpillar 120M

Caterpillar 12M

Caterpillar 14H Global

Small Excavators

Caterpillar 311D

Caterpillar 312D

Caterpillar 314D

Caterpillar 315D

Caterpillar 319D

Medium Excavators

Caterpillar 320D

Caterpillar 321D

Caterpillar 324D

Caterpillar 328D

Caterpillar 329D

Caterpillar 336D

Large Excavators

Caterpillar 345D

Caterpillar 365D

Caterpillar 385D

Ultra-High Demolition Excavators

Caterpillar 330D UHD

Caterpillar 345D UHD

Caterpillar 365D UHD

Caterpillar 385D UHD

Tracked Loaders (Traxcavators)

Caterpillar 931

Caterpillar 951

Caterpillar 953

Caterpillar 973

Caterpillar 983

Wheel Loaders

Caterpillar 930

Caterpillar 938

Caterpillar IT38

Caterpillar 950

Caterpillar 962

Caterpillar IT62

Caterpillar 966

Caterpillar 972

Caterpillar 980

Caterpillar 988

Caterpillar 990

Caterpillar 992

Caterpillar 993

Caterpillar 994

Articulated Dump truck (ADT)

Caterpillar D350D

Caterpillar 740 Ejector

Rigid Dump Trucks

Caterpillar 773B

Caterpillar 773D

Caterpillar 777

Caterpillar 789

Caterpillar 793D

Caterpillar 797F, the world's largest

mechanical drive truck.

Rollers

Caterpillar CS-533E

Engines

Twin Caterpillar 3208T engines powering Clogher Head lifeboat (Ireland)

A portion of CAT's business is in the manufacturing of diesel and natural gas engines and gas turbines, which, in addition to their use in the company's own vehicles, are used as the prime movers in locomotives, semi trucks, and ships, as well as providing the power source for peak-load power plants and emergency generators.

Caterpillar Defence Products

The Caterpillar Defence Products subsidiary, headquartered in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, provides diesel engines, automatic transmissions and other parts for the UK's Titan armored bridge layer, Trojan combat engineering tank, Terrier combat engineering vehicles, and tank transporters; the Romanian MLI-84 armored personnel carrier and the Swiss Piranha III light armored vehicle, which is currently being developed for use by American light armored formations; large fleets of military trucks in both the U.S. and UK; and the CV90 family of infantry fighting vehicles used by the armies of Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Denmark.

This division also provides both propulsion engines and power generation systems to the naval shipbuilding industry, such as the Series 3512B turbocharged V-12 diesel engine for American Virginia class nuclear submarines. Caterpillar diesel engines are also used in San Antonio class amphibious transport docks, Spanish Alvaro de Bazn class frigates, British River class patrol vessels, Mexican Sierra class patrol boats, and Malaysian Kedah class MEKO A-100 offshore patrol vessels.

Caterpillar Electronics

The Caterpillar Electronics business unit has formed Caterpillar Trimble Control Technologies LLC.,(CTCT), a 50:50 joint venture with Trimble Navigation to develop the next generation of advanced electronic guidance and control products for earthmoving machines in the construction, mining and waste industries. Caterpillar Trimble Control Technologies LLC is based in Dayton, Ohio and started its operations on April 1, 2002.

Product distribution

Caterpillar branded products are distributed to end-users through Caterpillar's worldwide dealer network. Caterpillar's dealers are independently owned and operated businesses with exclusive geographical territories. Dealers provide sales, maintenance and repair services, rental equipment, and parts distribution. Finning is Caterpillar's largest global distributor. Most dealers use the Dealer Management System called DBS(Dealer Business System) for their day to day operations

Management

Caterpillar has a corporate governance structure where the Chairman of the board also acts as Chief Executive Officer (CEO). The Board of Directors is fully independent and is made up of non-employee directors selected from outside the company. Several group presidents report to the CEO, and multiple vice presidents report to each group president.

The board has four committees: Audit, Compensation, Governance, and Public Policy.

The behavior of all employees is governed by a Code of Worldwide Business Conduct, first published in 1974 and last amended in 2005, which sets the corporate standard for honesty and ethical behavior. Management employees are retested on this code annually.

Current board of directors

James W. Owens - Chairman and CEO

W. Frank Blount

John R. Brazil

Daniel M. Dickinson

John T. Dillon

Eugene V. Fife

Gail D. Fosler

Juan Gallardo

David R. Goode

Peter A. Magowan

William A. Osborn

Charles Powell

Edward B. Rust, Jr.

Joshua I. Smith

On October 22, 2009 Caterpillar announced that Douglas R. Oberhelman will succeed James W. Owens as CEO on July 1, 2010 and as Chairman on October 31, 2010. This was reported on page 14 of Construction Equipment Guide in its Saturday October 31, 2009 edition

Employment

Worldwide employment was 94,225 at the end of third quarter 2009. Employment declined by approximately 17,900 from third quarter 2008. Due to restructuring of business operations, the decades since the 1990s have seen the elimination of 20,000 high-wage union jobs in the Peoria, Illinois area, while employment has increased due to the use of more non-U.S. and nonunion labor.

According to a 2001 article in the Nashville Business Journal, 60% of Caterpillar's employees work outside the United States.

Labor problems

Followings are the Labor problems: Caterpillar came close to bankruptcy in the early 1980s, at one point losing almost $1 million per day due to a sharp downturn in product demand as competition with Japanese rival Komatsu (who at the time used the internal slogan "encircle Caterpillar") heated up. The company also suffered when the United States declared an embargo against the Soviet Union after they invaded Afghanistan, causing the company to be unable to sell millions of dollars worth of pipelaying equipment it had already built. The impact of the embargo on the company was about $400 million.

The results were layoffs and massive labor union strikes, primarily by the United Auto Workers against plants in Illinois and Pennsylvania. Several news reports at the time indicated that products were piling up so high in facilities that temporary workers hired to work the lines could barely make their way to their work stations.

In 1992, Caterpillar fought the United Auto Workers in a five-month strike, threatening to replace its entire unionized work force. Caterpillar had offered a contract that would have raised the salary of top workers to $39,000 in 1994 from $35,000. But the union was seeking the same top wage of $40,000 that was paid workers at Deere & Company in 1994.

Caterpillar's response to these labor conflicts was to "farm out" much of its parts production and warehouse work to outside firms: Rather than fighting the union, Caterpillar has made itself less vulnerable to the tools traditionally available to organized workers. Caterpillar also made effective use of office staff during the disputes, suspending research and development work to send thousands of engineers and others into their factories to fill in for striking or locked out union members.

Caterpillar also embarked on its "southern strategy," opening new small plants, termed "focus facilities", in right to work states such as North Carolina (Clayton and Sanford), South Carolina (Greenville), Mississippi (Corinth), Tennessee (Dyersburg), Georgia (Griffin LaGrange), Texas (Seguin), and Arkansas (North Little Rock), where labor laws provide more protection for workers not wanting to join unions.

Notable achievements and controversies

Caterpillar has been involved in a number of "firsts". The crawler tractor that inspired the first military tanks were based in part on patents for a track design that the Holt Manufacturing Company bought from Richard Hornsby & Sons of England. The predecessor Holt tractor became one of the most important military vehicles of all time when it was used as an artillery tractor during World War I. Admiral William F. ull Halsey commented at the end of World War II, that he four machines that won the war in the Pacific were the submarine, radar, the airplane and the tractor-bulldozer." They have contributed to construction projects helped build the Hoover Dam, the U.S. Interstate highway system, the Channel Tunnel under the English Channel, and construct cities and neighborhoods across the United States. Caterpillar equipment helped to tumble the Berlin Wall but also to build the United Statesexico border and Israeli West Bank border barriers.

Caterpillar built its first Russian facility in the town of Tosno, located near St. Petersburg, Russia. It was completed in 16 months and occupied in November 1999. It had the first electrical substation built in the Leningrad Oblast since the Communist government was dissolved on December 26, 1991. The facility was built under harsh winter conditions, where the temperature was below -25C. The facility construction was managed Lemminkinen Group located in Helsinki, Finland.

Currently under construction is the $125M Caterpillar Suzhou, PRC facility, which will manufacture World Class Medium Wheel Loaders and Motorgraders, primarily for the Asian market. The first machine is scheduled for production in March 2009. The facility construction is managed by URS Ausino, located in San Francisco, California.

"Excellent company" designation

Caterpillar was one of the "excellent" companies featured in the 1982 best-selling management book In Search of Excellence by Tom Peters. The company's written principles are the Code of Worldwide Business Conduct document that stresses integrity in every action.

In the 1990s, Caterpillar management adopted the Six Sigma quality management program in an effort to reduce costs and inventory, and identify and correct defects in the company's processes and products.

Environmental impacts

Caterpillar has been criticized by many environmental groups. Products produced by the company include forestry equipment, mining equipment, and diesel engines. While providing higher fuel efficiency than gasoline engines, diesel engines usually produce higher levels of NOx and particulates.

In July 1999, Caterpillar, along with five other diesel engine manufacturers, signed a consent decree with the Justice Department and the State of California, after governmental investigations had revealed violations of the Clean Air Act, in the form of the sale of over a million diesel engines with "defeat devices," devices designed to regulate emissions during pre-sale tests, but to disable themselves in favor of better performance during subsequent highway driving. Consequently, these engines "emit up to triple the permissible level of smog-forming nitrogen oxides (NOx). In 1998 alone, these violating vehicles emitted 1.3 million tons of additional NOx an amount equal to the emissions of 65 million cars." For this reason, Caterpillar was named the "Clean Air Villain of the Month" for August 2000 by the Clean Air Trust. The consent decree provided that $83 million be paid in civil penalties and determined new deadlines for meeting emissions standards. Caterpillar, however, was successful in lobbying for an extension of deadlines they considered too severe. Even so, in October, 2002, Caterpillar  the only diesel engine company (of those that signed decrees) to fail to meet the new emissions standards deadline  was forced to pay $128 million in per-engine non-conformance penalties.

Shortened CAT logo

In 2004, the company came out with ACERT diesel engines that exceed federal guidelines for emission standards. In 2007, Caterpillar released a second generation of ACERT to meet even stricter standards.

Caterpillar actively participates in initiatives such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency's National Clean Diesel Campaign program, which encourages retrofitting fleets of older buses and trucks with newer diesel engines that meet higher emissions standards.

In 2005, Cat expressed a strong commitment to sustainability in its annual report's "letter to shareholders" and announced plans to publish an annual sustainability report.

In 2005, Caterpillar donated $12 million dollars to The Nature Conservancy in a joint effort to protect and preserve river systems in Brazil, U.S.A., and China.

In recent years Caterpillar has expanded in the remanufacturing area. In 2006 they acquired Progress Rail Services Corporation, a provider of remanufactured locomotive and railcar products and services to the North American railroad industry. In 2007, they acquired Eurenov S.A.S., a remanufacturer of engines, transmissions and components for leading European automotive manufacturers.

In 2006, the company issued its first annual sustainability report, touting its remanufacturing, recycling, and environmental projects around the world. This report can be found on their website.

Caterpillar has, for many years, been a member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development based in Geneva, Switzerland.

Caterpillar has been listed on the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index each year since 2001.

An example of how Caterpillar is helping the environment is by creating the world largest coal mine methane plant. Methane is a greenhouse gas that eventually could be used as a clean energy source. Caterpillar contracted with China to provide 60 methane gas powered generators and produce 120 megawatts of power at the Sihe Coal Mine in Jincheng City, Shanxi province. The project will improve methane gas ventilation at the mine site and create an environmentally friendly fuel source to generate electricity.

Caterpillar divisions have won Illinois Governor's Pollution Prevention Awards every year since 1998.

Caterpillar was awarded the 2007 Illinois Governor's Pollution Prevention Award for three projects: The Hydraulics and Hydraulic Systems business unit in Joliet implemented a flame sprayed coating for its truck suspension system, replacing a chroming process, reducing hazardous waste by 700,000 pounds annually and saving 14 million gallons of water. Caterpillar's Cast Metals Organization in Mapleton worked with the American Foundry Society to help produce a rule to reduce hazardous waste in scrap metal that would not only meet strict quality requirements, but would allow foundries to continue to recycle certain types of scrap and maintain a competitive cost structure. Caterpillar's Mossville Engine Center formed a team to look at used oil re-use and recycle processes that forced MEC to send large amounts of used oil off-site for recycling, and developed an updated system for reclaiming it for re-use on-site. The resulting benefits included a usage reduction of about 208,000 gallons of oil per year.

In late 2008 Caterpillar announced that it will stop producing engines for on highway truck applications. Caterpillar will continue to make highway class 8 engines until the end of 2009.

Israeli military sales and conversions

Israel Defense Forces armored Caterpillar D9L (right) and D9N (left) bulldozers

Caterpillar equipment, especially the D9 bulldozer, has been equipped with armor and military equipment by third parties, and used as a combat engineering vehicle. Caterpillar has been criticized by activists for selling its equipment to Israel, which has used it in the demolition of Palestinian homes.

A shareholder motion to examine the issue has been brought repeatedly at Caterpillar's annual meetings by investors opposed to Israeli policy. In recommending a vote against the motion, Caterpillar's board stated, "Caterpillar shares the world's concern over unrest in the Middle East and we certainly have compassion for all those affected by the political strife. However, more than two million Caterpillar machines and engines are at work in virtually every country of the world each day. We have neither the legal right nor the means to police individual use of that equipment. We believe any comments on political conflict in the region are best left to our governmental leaders who have the ability to impact action and advance the peace process." The motion received 4% of shareholder support at the 2004 annual meeting.

The family of Rachel Corrie, an American who was killed with a Caterpillar tractor while protesting Israeli military action in Gaza, sued Caterpillar alleging it violated human rights and committed war crimes by knowingly selling its equipment to the Israeli army. Four Palestinians whose homes were bulldozed joined her as plaintiffs. An Israeli government investigation claimed that the bulldozer team was clearing debris to uncover smuggling tunnels, not destroying homes, and that the operator did not see Corrie.

The suit was dismissed by a U.S. District Court judge in Tacoma in 2005. The dismissal was upheld on appeal to the San Francisco-based 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on September 17, 2007, saying it is not the court's role to criticize foreign policy. "The executive branch has made a policy determination that Israel should purchase Caterpillar bulldozers," the appeals court decision stated. "A court could not find in favor of the plaintiffs without implicitly questioning, and even condemning, United States foreign policy toward Israel."

References in popular culture

Earthworm Tractors 1936 movie based on stories in The Saturday Evening Post, is based on Caterpillar and premiered in Peoria

The Fighting Seabees Movie starring John Wayne, Navy Seabees (construction battalions) use Caterpillar tractors during World War II

The Grapes of Wrath Book by John Steinbeck

The Grapes of Wrath Film, screenplay by Nunnally Johnson: "They come. They come and pushed me off. They come with the cats ... the Caterpillar tractors."

Smokey and the Bandit: Movie, the character "Snowman" wears a "Cat Diesel Power" hat in his role as a "typical southern trucker".

"Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks" Sculpture (1969) by Swedish sculptor Claes Oldenburg

The Monkey Wrench Gang Book by Edward Abbey: "They crawled all over a Caterpillar D-9A, world's greatest bulldozer, the idol of all highwaymen. Put so much sand in the crankcase..."

Black Dog Movie: "Ain't nothing like a Caterpillar engine..."

From 1999 until 2008 they sponsored the various cars of Bill Davis Racing, scoring four wins, including two majors (2001 Mountain Dew Southern 500, 2002 Daytona 500). Beginning in 2009, the sponsorship will move to Richard Childress Racing's 31 car, driven by Jeff Burton. Ironically, it was Burton's brother Ward who scored all four of Caterpillar's NASCAR wins, including the two majors. Burton needs only to win the two restrictor-plate majors to finish off a Career Grand Slam.

Sponsor for the Top Fuel Dragster driven by Rod Fuller (NHRA)

Sponsored the Australian V8 Supercar teams 00 Motorpsort/Gibson Racing and Ford Performance Racing

As of the 2008/09 Guinness Premiership Rugby season (UK), Caterpillar Inc. are the official shirt sponsors of Leicester Tigers RUFC.

The exosuit in Aliens was custom built by Caterpillar for the movie and carried its logo.

Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen - 3 Caterpillar vehicles are used for the alternate modes of three Constructicons: Long Haul (dump truck), Rampage (bulldozer), and Scrapper (front loader).

District 9 - An Caterpillar Hydraulic Excavator 320B is spotted in the District 9 in a camera movement.

The Stockholm-based Indie pop/rock band Shout Out Louds's song Time Left for Love, in their 2007 album Our Ill Wills, mentions Caterpillar in the song lyrics "I lost all my friends in an accident/I couldn't believe what happened/The rumours said it was a serial killer/but they got hit by a caterpillar.

See also

G-numbers for U.S. Army caterpillar tractors.

References

^ a b Caterpillar Inc's annual income statement via Wikinvest

^ "2007 10-K". http://idea.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/18230/000001823008000052/ex_13.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-13. 

^ "Fortune 500 2008: Caterpillar - CAT". Cable News Network. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2008/snapshots/81.html. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 

^ "Cat Financial Announces First Quarter 2008 Results" (PDF). Caterpillar Financial Services Corporation. http://www.cat.com/cda/files/834125/7/Final1Q08_CFSC.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 

^ Caterpillar Inc. - Company History

^ http://www.catlifttruck.com/jkcm/default.aspx?pg=4828

^ http://mysolar.cat.com/cda/layout?m=10683&x=7

^ http://www.bizjournals.com/twincities/stories/1997/03/17/story1.html

^ http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation/motor-vehicle-manufacturing/660053-1.html

^ http://www.allbusiness.com/manufacturing/machinery-manufacturing/720521-1.html

^ http://www.allbusiness.com/transportation/motor-vehicle-manufacturing/251424-1.html

^ http://www.allbusiness.com/manufacturing/machinery-equipment-manufacturing/8087464-1.html

^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FZX/is_8_66/ai_64991321

^ http://www.marinelink.com/Story/Caterpillar+Completes+Acquisition+of+Sabre+Engines+Ltd.-3173.html

^ a b http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-125149998.html

^ http://www.power-technology.com/contractors/powerplant/turbomach1/press4.html

^ http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/caterpillar-buys-privately-held-rail/story.aspx?guid={4DAD5133-2E8D-4AB5-957A-0EC7A04FB76D}

^ http://www.indusbusinessjournal.com/ME2/Audiences/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&tier=4&id=5EF6A8877FAD4AA98C813E6732B6C85A&AudID=6EF55B05AA694954939FA7B6FB605DAB

^ http://news.thomasnet.com/companystory/517555

^ http://www.siteprepmag.com/Articles/Industry_News/BNP_GUID_9-5-2006_A_10000000000000198340

^ http://www.allbusiness.com/manufacturing/machinery-equipment-manufacturing/8933097-1.html

^ http://www.cat.com/cda/components/fullArticle?m=38622&x=7&id=814071

^ http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS68184+26-Mar-2008+PRN20080326

^ http://www.railwaygazette.com/it_single/article/2008/06/8570/caterpillar_buys_mge.html

^ http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS133430+16-Jun-2008+PRN20080616

^ http://www.cat.com/cda/files/2007651/7/113009%20Caterpillar%20Announces%20Acquisition%20of%20JCS%20Co%20Ltd.pdf

^ Caterpillar: Home

^ "Caterpillar Defence Products". Armed Forces - The Defence Suppliers Directory. R & F Defence Publications. http://www.armedforces.co.uk/companies/raq3f8ab10ac700f. Retrieved 2007-08-04. 

^ "MEKO A Class Corvettes / Frigates, Germany". naval-technology.com. http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/meko/. Retrieved 2008-09-16. "The Kedah Class MEKO A-100 patrol vessel being built for Malaysia has a displacement of 1,650t. The propulsion system is based on two Caterpillar 3616 (5,450kW) diesel engines each driving two controllable pitch propellers." 

^ "Caterpillar Outlines Leadership Succession Plan; Board Names Doug Oberhelman Vice Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Elect". Caterpillar Inc.. 2009-10-22. http://www.cat.com/cda/files/1921082/7/102209%20Vice%20Chair%20Election.pdf?m=37523&x=7. Retrieved 2009-10-22. 

^ "Execs: Adapt to culture when working internationally". Nashville Business Journal. 2001-02-22. http://www.bizjournals.com/nashville/stories/2001/02/19/daily24.html. Retrieved 2007-08-05. 

^ commitment | strategy | japanese philosophy

^ USA Engage - Home

^ Union Agrees To End Strike At Caterpillar, by Jonathan P. Hicks, New York Times, April 15, 1992

^ "Hornsby Steam Crawler History". http://hornsbycrawler.org/index.php/Main/History. 

^ "The Holt 15-ton Tractor". http://www.landships.freeservers.com/new_pages/holt_tractor_info.htm. 

^ Pernie, Gwenyth Laird (March 3, 2009). "Benjamin Holt (1849-1920): The Father of the Caterpillar tractor". http://www.wastehandling.com/ME2/Audiences/dirmod.asp?sid=&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=8F3A7027421841978F18BE895F87F791&id=47C5DE563581487B9E4394B939909F9E&tier=4. 

^ "One of Caterpillar Founding Fathers Enter Inventor Hall of Fame". Spring 2006. http://www.redmountain.com/newsletters/RMMC_Spring_2006_Newsletter.pdf. Retrieved 2-28-2010. 

^ Caterpillar Worldwide Code of Conduct

^ "Six Diesel Engine Companies". Clean Air Villain of the Month. Clean Air Trust. 2000-08-01. http://www.cleanairtrust.org/villain.0800.html. Retrieved 2007-08-05. 

^ "Justice Department Announces FY2003 Record Year For Recovery Of Civil Penalties In Environmental Cases". United States Department of Justice. 2003-12-16. http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/2003/December/03_enrd_694.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-05. 

^ "Caterpillar Brings Engines with ACERT Technology to Off-Road Machines". Caterpillar Inc.. http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=48920&x=7. Retrieved 2007-08-05. 

^ "Caterpillar demonstrates 2007 compliant on-highway engine". Pit & Quarry. http://www.pitandquarry.com/pitandquarry/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=327472. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 

^ "Diesel Engine School Bus Retrofit Technology Workshop, Baltimore, MD, April 29, 2004". Maryland Department of the Environment. http://www.mde.state.md.us/Programs/AirPrograms/Mobile_Sources/dieselemmiscontrolprog/workshop/participants/index.asp. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 

^ "Cat backs plan to cut school bus emissions". Trailer/Body Builders. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5048/is_200306/ai_n18341363. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 

^ "Cat Annual Report 2005" (PDF). Caterpillar Inc.. http://www.marketadvices.com/reports/caterpillarinc-2005.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 

^ "$12 Million from Caterpillar Inc. to The Nature Conservancy Launches Ambitious Global Freshwater River Project and Establishes a Great Rivers Center". The Nature Conservancy. http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/illinois/press/press1737.html. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 

^ "WBCSD member companies". World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 2007-08-03. http://www.wbcsd.org/web/about/members.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-04. 

^ "Dow Jones Sustainability World Index Recognizes Caterpillar's Leadership for the Fifth Consecutive Year.". PRNewswire. 2005-09-21. http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-4719013_ITM. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 

^ http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/may2006/2006-05-22-09.asp Climate Leaders May 7, 2008. Retrieved May 8, 2008

^ Bloomberg: Westrac to sell methane Gas powered generators

^ WMRC - Information Services - Governor's Awards - Previous Winners

^ http://dnr.state.il.us/PUBAFFAIRS/2007/Oct/illinois.html Illinois Department Of Natural Resources October 25, 2007. Retrieved May 8, 2008

^ Caterpillar digs in on Israeli bulldozer battle Chicago Sun-Times, June 15, 2006 by David Roeder

^ Caterpillar faces an intifada. Salon.com May 13, 2004

^ University of Wisconsin System Trust Funds. Caterpillar and Human Rights in Israel December 2004

^ Roxana Popescu, Seattle Times: Court of Appeals takes up Corrie lawsuit

^ Caterpillar Escapes Liability For Israeli Bulldozer Operations - September 18, 2007 - The New York Sun

^ Federal appeals court panel refuses to reinstate lawsuit by family of U.S. activist killed with an Israeli bulldozer - International Herald Tribune

^ Court dismisses suit over Israeli bulldozing | U.S. | Reuters

^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0027562/

^ http://www.bandittransamclub.com/Snowman.jpg

^ "Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks"

^ "Caterpillar to replace AT&T as Burton's sponsor in 2009"

External links

Companies portal

Official Caterpillar website

Company History

Engine Development

North American Dealer Network

CAT 578 Pipelayer and Overhauling of its 3406 Engine

Antique Caterpillar Machinery Owners Club

Antique Caterpillar Machinery Enthusiasts

http://mailer.fsu.edu/~akirk/tanks/UnitedStates/unarmored-halftracks/unarmored-half-tracks.html early holt pictures

v  d  e

Dow Jones Industrial Average components

Current

3M  Alcoa  American Express  AT&T  Bank of America  Boeing  Caterpillar  Chevron  Cisco Systems  The Coca-Cola Company  DuPont  ExxonMobil  General Electric  Hewlett-Packard  The Home Depot  Intel  IBM  Johnson & Johnson  JPMorgan Chase  Kraft Foods  McDonald's  Merck & Co.  Microsoft  Pfizer  Procter & Gamble  The Travelers Companies  United Technologies Corporation  Verizon Communications  Wal-Mart  The Walt Disney Company

Selected former

Altria Group  American International Group  American Telephone & Telegraph  American Tobacco Company  Bethlehem Steel  Citigroup  Colorado Fuel and Iron  Eastman Kodak  General Foods  General Motors  Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company  Honeywell  International Harvester  International Paper  Johns-Manville  Nash Motors  Navistar International  North American Company  Owens-Illinois  Sears, Roebuck and Company  Union Carbide  United States Rubber Company  U.S. Steel  F. W. Woolworth Company

v  d  e

Trucking industry in the United States

Regulated by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration

Regulations

Commercial driver's license  Hours of service  Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula  Electronic on-board recorder  Motor carrier safety rating  Motor Carrier Act of 1980  International Registration Plan  National Network

Manufacturers

Trucks: Autocar  Freightliner  International  Kenworth  Mack  Peterbilt  Sterling  Volvo  Western Star  White

Engines: Caterpillar  Cummins  Detroit Diesel  Mercedes-Benz  Navistar

Motor carriers

Truckload carriers: Covenant  England  J.B. Hunt  PAM Transport  Schneider  Swift  USA Truck  Werner   Knight

LTL and parcel carriers: ABF  Con-way  FedEx  UPS  YRC (formerly Yellow and Roadway)

Moving companies: Allied  Atlas  Bekins  Gentle Giant Moving Company  Graebel  Global  Mayflower  North American  PODS  United   Shleppers Moving & Storage

Truck stops

Bosselman  Flying J  Iowa 80  Petro  Pilot  Road Ranger  Roady's  TravelCenters  Love's  Town Pump

People

Reginald Denny  Jimmy Hoffa  Fred Smith  John B. Hunt  Kelly Reno  Iyman Faris  Larry Walters  Keith Jesperson

Organizations

Teamsters Union  Owner-Operator Independent Drivers Association  American Trucking Associations  SmartWay Transport Partnership

Glossary

Glossary of trucking industry terms in the United States

Popular culture

Film: Black Dog  Convoy  Duel  F.I.S.T.  Maximum Overdrive  The Gang's All Here  Smokey and the Bandit (series)  They Drive by Night  White Line Fever  Joy Ride

Television: B.J. and the Bear  Ice Road Truckers  Movin' On  Trick My Truck

Music: "Convoy"  "Papa Loved Mama"  "Six Days on the Road"  "Teddy Bear"  "Drive-By Truckers"

Radio: Road Dog Trucking  America's Trucking Network  Midnight Trucking (Bill Mack  Dale Sommers  Dave Nemo)

Other : The Rolling Memorial

v  d  e

Illinois-based Corporations

Fortune 500

Corporations

(by size)

Archer Daniels Midland  State Farm Insurance Company  Boeing  Walgreen Company  Caterpillar Inc.  Sears Holdings Corporation  Kraft Foods  Motorola  Abbott Laboratories  Allstate  Deere & Company  McDonald's  UAL Corporation  Exelon  Illinois Tool Works  Navistar International  Integrys Energy Group  Sara Lee Corporation  Baxter International  RR Donnelley  Aon Corporation  OfficeMax  Fortune Brands  Discover Financial  Smurfit-Stone Container  W. W. Grainger  Anixter International  Tenneco  Northern Trust  Telephone and Data Systems  United Stationers  Brunswick Corporation

Fortune 1000

Corporations

(by size)

Companies listed above, plus: Old Republic International  SIRVA  Nalco Holding Company  Hospira  Corn Products International  Molex  General Growth Properties  Pactiv  Nicor  Country Financial  Unitrin Inc  Hewitt Associates  CF Industries Holdings  Jones Lang LaSalle  Solo Cup Company  Packaging Corp. of America  Metal Management  Andrew Company  Equity Residential  Sauer-Danfoss  ACCO Brands  Tellabs  AptarGroup  Gardner Denver  Brookdale Senior Living  Career Education Corporation  CME Group  Arthur J. Gallagher & Co.  Hub Group

Major privately

held companies

(alphabetically)

Amsted Industries  Baker & McKenzie  CC Industries  CDW  Crescent Electric Supply Company  Dot Foods  Eby-Brown  Electro-Motive Diesel  Flex-N-Gate  Follett Corporation  Frank Consolidated Enterprises  Global Hyatt  Goss International  Grant Thornton LLP  Heico Corporation  Indalex  Kirkland & Ellis  Koch Foods  Marmon Group  Mayer Brown  Medline Industries  OSI Group  Pepper Construction Group  Pliant Corporation  Reyes Holdings  Schiff Hardin LLP  Sidley Austin  U.S. Foodservice  Walsh Group  Wirtz Corp.

Categories: Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange | Dow Jones Industrial Average | Caterpillar Inc. | Engine manufacturers | Companies based in Peoria, Illinois | Companies established in 1925 | Construction equipment manufacturers | Mining equipment companies | Shoe brands | Marine engine manufacturers | Tractor manufacturers of the United States | Vehicle manufacturing companies of the United StatesHidden categories: Portal:Companies/Total

Paracetamol

China Product


History

Acetanilide was the first aniline derivative serendipitously found to possess analgesic as well as antipyretic properties, and was quickly introduced into medical practice under the name of Antifebrin by A. Cahn and P. Hepp in 1886. But its unacceptable toxic effects, the most alarming being cyanosis due to methemoglobinemia, prompted the search for less toxic aniline derivatives. Harmon Northrop Morse had already synthesized paracetamol at Johns Hopkins University via the reduction of p-nitrophenol with tin in glacial acetic acid in 1877, but it was not until 1887 that clinical pharmacologist Joseph von Mering tried paracetamol on patients. In 1893, von Mering published a paper reporting on the clinical results of paracetamol with phenacetin, another aniline derivative. Von Mering claimed that, unlike phenacetin, paracetamol had a slight tendency to produce methemoglobinemia. Paracetamol was then quickly discarded in favor of phenacetin. The sales of phenacetin established Bayer as a leading pharmaceutical company. Overshadowed in part by aspirin, introduced into medicine by Heinrich Dreser in 1899, phenacetin was popular for many decades, particularly in widely advertised over-the-counter "headache mixtures," usually containing phenacetin, an aminopyrine derivative or aspirin, caffeine, and sometimes a barbiturate.

Von Mering's claims remained essentially unchallenged for half a century, until two teams of researchers from the United States analyzed the metabolism of acetanilide and paracetamol. In 1947 David Lester and Leon Greenberg found strong evidence that paracetamol was a major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and in a subsequent study they reported that large doses of paracetamol given to albino rats did not cause methemoglobinemia. In three papers published in the September 1948 issue of the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Bernard Brodie, Julius Axelrod and Frederick Flinn confirmed using more specific methods that paracetamol was the major metabolite of acetanilide in human blood, and established it was just as efficacious an analgesic as its precursor. They also suggested that methemoglobinemia is produced in humans mainly by another metabolite, phenylhydroxylamine. A followup paper by Brodie and Axelrod in 1949 established that phenacetin was also metabolized to paracetamol. This led to a "rediscovery" of paracetamol. It has been suggested that contamination of paracetamol with 4-aminophenol, the substance from which it was synthesized by von Mering, may be the cause for his spurious findings. battery operated sprayer

Bernard Brodie and Julius Axelrod (pictured) demonstrated that acetanilide and phenacetin are both metabolized to paracetamol, which is a better tolerated analgesic. siphon hand pump

Paracetamol was first marketed in the United States in 1953 by Sterling-Winthrop Co., which promoted it as preferable to aspirin since it was safe to take for children and people with ulcers. The best known brand today for paracetamol in the United States, Tylenol, was established in 1955 when McNeil Laboratories started selling paracetamol as a pain and fever reliever for children, under the brand name Tylenol Children's Elixirhe word "tylenol" was a contraction of para-acetylaminophenol. In 1956, 500 mg tablets of paracetamol went on sale in the United Kingdom under the trade name Panadol, produced by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug Inc. Panadol was originally available only by prescription, for the relief of pain and fever, and was advertised as being "gentle to the stomach," since other analgesic agents of the time contained aspirin, a known stomach irritant.[citation needed] In 1963, paracetamol was added to the British Pharmacopoeia, and has gained popularity since then as an analgesic agent with few side-effects and little interaction with other pharmaceutical agents. Concerns about paracetamol's safety delayed its widespread acceptance until the 1970s, but in the 1980s paracetamol sales exceeded those of aspirin in many countries, including the United Kingdom. This was accompanied by the commercial demise of phenacetin, blamed as the cause of analgesic nephropathy and hematological toxicity. garden hose attachment

The U.S. patent on paracetamol has long expired, and generic versions of the drug are widely available under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, although certain Tylenol preparations were protected until 2007. U.S. patent 6,126,967 filed September 3, 1998 was granted for "Extended release acetaminophen particles".

Structure and reactivity

Polar surface area of the paracetamol molecule

Paracetamol consists of a benzene ring core, substituted by one hydroxyl group and the nitrogen atom of an amide group in the para (1,4) pattern. The amide group is acetamide (ethanamide). It is an extensively conjugated system, as the lone pair on the hydroxyl oxygen, the benzene pi cloud, the nitrogen lone pair, the p orbital on the carbonyl carbon, and the lone pair on the carbonyl oxygen are all conjugated. The presence of two activating groups also make the benzene ring highly reactive toward electrophilic aromatic substitution. As the substituents are ortho,para-directing and para with respect to each other, all positions on the ring are more or less equally activated. The conjugation also greatly reduces the basicity of the oxygens and the nitrogen, while making the hydroxyl acidic through delocalisation of charge developed on the phenoxide anion.

Synthesis

Compared with many other drugs, paracetamol is much easier to synthesize, because it lacks stereocenters. As a result, there is no need to design a stereo-selective synthesis.

Industrial preparation of paracetamol usually proceeds from nitrobenzene. A one-step reductive acetamidation reaction can be mediated by thioacetate.

Paracetamol may be easily prepared in the laboratory by nitrating phenol with sodium nitrate, separating the desired p-nitrophenol from the ortho- byproduct, and reducing the nitro group with sodium borohydride. The resultant p-aminophenol is then acetylated with acetic anhydride. In this reaction, phenol is strongly activating, thus the reaction only requires mild conditions (c.f. the nitration of benzene):

Reactions

p-Aminophenol may be obtained by the amide hydrolysis of paracetamol. p-Aminophenol prepared this way, and related to the commercially available Metol, has been used as a developer in photography by hobbyists.

Available forms

Main article: List of paracetamol brand names

Panadol Rapid caplets (AU)

Paracetamol is available in a tablet, capsule, liquid suspension, suppository, intravenous, and intramuscular form. The common adult dose is 500 mg to 1000 mg. The recommended maximum daily dose, for adults, is 4000 mg. In recommended doses, paracetamol generally is safe for children and infants, as well as for adults.

Panadol, which is marketed in Africa, Asia, Europe, Central America, and Australasia, is the most widely available brand, sold in over 80 countries. In North America, paracetamol is sold in generic form (usually labeled as acetaminophen) or under a number of trade names, for instance, Tylenol (McNeil-PPC, Inc.),Tydenol (Edruc Limited,Bangladesh) Anacin-3, Tempra, and Datril,. While there is brand named paracetamol available in the UK (e.g. Panadol), unbranded or generic paracetamol is more commonly sold. Acamol, a brand name for paracetamol produced by Teva Pharmaceutical Industries in Israel, is one of the most popular drugs in that country. In Europe, the most common brands of paracetamol are Efferalgan and Doliprane. In India, the most common brand of paracetamol is Crocin manufactured by Glaxo SmithKline Asia. In Bangladesh the most popular brand is Napa manufactured by Beximco Pharma.

In some formulations, paracetamol is combined with the opioid codeine, sometimes referred to as co-codamol (BAN). In the United States and Canada, this is marketed under the name of Tylenol #1/2/3/4, which contain 810 mg, 15 mg, 30 mg, and 60 mg of codeine, respectively. In the U.S., this combination is available only by prescription, while the lowest-strength preparation is over-the-counter in Canada, and, in other countries, other strengths may be available over the counter. There are generic forms of these combinations as well. In the UK and in many other countries, this combination is marketed under the names of Tylex CD and Panadeine. Other names include Captin, Disprol, Dymadon, Fensum, Hedex, Mexalen, Nofedol, Paralen, Pediapirin, Perfalgan, and Solpadeine. Paracetamol is also combined with other opioids such as dihydrocodeine, referred to as co-dydramol (BAN), oxycodone or hydrocodone, marketed in the U.S. as Percocet and Vicodin, respectively. Another very commonly used analgesic combination includes paracetamol in combination with propoxyphene napsylate, sold under the brand name Darvocet. A combination of paracetamol, codeine, and the calmative doxylamine succinate is marketed as Syndol or Mersyndol.

Paracetamol is commonly used in multi-ingredient preparations for migraine headache, typically including butalbital and paracetamol with or without caffeine, and sometimes containing codeine.

Brand Names

Aceta, Actimin, Anacin-3, Apacet, Aspirin Free Anacin, Atasol, Banesin, Ben-uron, Crocin, Dafalgan, Dapa, Dolo, Datril Extra-Strength, DayQuil, Depon & Depon Maximum, Feverall, Few Drops, Fibi, Fibi plus, Genapap, Genebs, Lekadol, LemSip, Liquiprin, Lupocet, Neopap, Ny-Quil, Oraphen-PD, Panado, Panadol, Paracet, Panodil, Paratabs, Paralen, Phenaphen, Plicet, Redutemp, Snaplets-FR, Suppap, Tamen, Tapanol, Tempra, Tylenol, Valorin, Xcel.

Mechanism of action

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (January 2010)

Paracetamol is usually classified along with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAID),[by whom?] but is not considered one, rather is part of the class of drugs known as aniline analgesics. Like all drugs of this class, its main mechanism of action is the inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX),[citation needed] an enzyme responsible for the production of prostaglandins, which are important mediators of inflammation, pain and fever. Therefore, all NSAIDs are said to possess anti-inflammatory, analgesic (anti-pain), and antipyretic (anti-fever) properties. The specific actions of each NSAID drug depends upon their pharmacological properties, distribution and metabolism.

While paracetamol has analgesic and antipyretic properties comparable to those of aspirin, it fails to exert significant anti-inflammatory action due to paracetamol's susceptibility to the high level of peroxides present in inflammatory lesions.

AM404 metabolite of paracetamol

Anandamiden endogenous cannabinoid

However, the mechanism by which paracetamol reduces fever and pain is still debated largely because paracetamol reduces the production of prostaglandins (pro-inflammatory chemicals). Aspirin also inhibits the production of prostaglandins, but, unlike aspirin, paracetamol has little anti-inflammatory action. Likewise, whereas aspirin inhibits the production of the pro-clotting chemicals thromboxanes, paracetamol does not. Aspirin is known to inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) family of enzymes, and, because of paracetamol's partial similarity of aspirin's action,[clarification needed] much research has focused on whether paracetamol also inhibits COX. It is now clear that paracetamol acts via at least two pathways.

The COX family of enzymes are responsible for the metabolism of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H2, an unstable molecule, which is, in turn, converted to numerous other pro-inflammatory compounds. Classical anti-inflammatories, such as the NSAIDs, block this step. Only when appropriately oxidized is the COX enzyme highly active. Paracetamol reduces the oxidized form of the COX enzyme, preventing it from forming pro-inflammatory chemicals.. Thus reducing the amount of Prostaglandin E2 in the CNS and thus lowering the hypothalamic set point in the thermoregulatory centre. Inhibition of another enzyme COX3 is specifically implicated in the case of paracetamol. COX3 is not seen outside the CNS Article text. Paracetamol also modulates the endogenous cannabinoid system. Paracetamol is metabolized to AM404, a compound with several actions; most important, it inhibits the uptake of the endogenous cannabinoid/vanilloid anandamide by neurons. Anandamide uptake would result in the activation of the main pain receptor (nociceptor) of the body, the TRPV1 (older name: vanilloid receptor). Furthermore, AM404 inhibits sodium channels, as do the anesthetics lidocaine and procaine. Either of these actions by themselves has been shown to reduce pain, and are a possible mechanism for paracetamol, though it has been demonstrated that, after blocking cannabinoid receptors and hence making any action of cannabinoid reuptake irrelevant, paracetamol loses analgesic effect, suggesting its pain-relieving action is mediated by the endogenous cannabinoid system.

One theory holds that paracetamol works by inhibiting the COX-3 isoform of the COX family of enzymes. This enzyme, when expressed in dogs, shares a strong similarity to the other COX enzymes, produces pro-inflammatory chemicals, and is selectively inhibited by paracetamol. However, some research has suggested that in humans and mice, the COX-3 enzyme is without inflammatory action. Another possibility is that paracetamol blocks cyclooxygenase (as in aspirin), but that in an inflammatory environment, where the concentration of peroxides is high, the oxidation state of paracetamol is high which prevents its actions. This would mean that paracetamol has no direct effect at the site of inflammation but instead acts in the CNS to reduce temperature etc where the environment is not oxidative. The exact mechanism by which paracetamol is believed to affect COX-3 is disputed.

Metabolism

Main pathways of paracetamol metabolism (click to enlarge). Pathways shown in blue and purple lead to non-toxic metabolites; the pathway in red leads to toxic NAPQI.

Paracetamol is metabolised primarily in the liver, into non-toxic products. Three metabolic pathways are notable:

Glucuronidation is believed to account for 40% to two-thirds of the metabolism of paracetamol.

Sulfation (sulfate conjugation) may account for 2040%.

N-hydroxylation and rearrangement, then GSH conjugation, accounts for less than 15%. The hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme system metabolizes paracetamol, forming a minor yet significant alkylating metabolite known as NAPQI (N-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone imine). NAPQI is then irreversibly conjugated with the sulfhydryl groups of glutathione.

All three pathways yield final products that are inactive, non-toxic, and eventually excreted by the kidneys. In the third pathway, however, the intermediate product NAPQI is toxic. NAPQI is primarily responsible for the toxic effects of paracetamol; this constitutes an excellent example of toxication.

Production of NAPQI is due primarily to two isoenzymes of cytochrome P450: CYP2E1 and CYP1A2. The P450 gene is highly polymorphic, however, and individual differences in paracetamol toxicity are believed to be due to a third isoenzyme, CYP2D6. Genetic polymorphisms in CYP2D6 may contribute to significantly different rates of production of NAPQI. Furthermore, individuals can be classified as "extensive", "ultrarapid", and "poor" metabolizers (producers of NAPQI), depending on their levels of CYP2D6 expression. Although CYP2D6 metabolises paracetamol into NAPQI to a lesser extent than other P450 enzymes, its activity may contribute to paracetamol toxicity in extensive and ultrarapid metabolisers, and when paracetamol is taken at very large doses. At usual doses, NAPQI is quickly detoxified by conjugation. Following overdose, and possibly also in extensive and ultrarapid metabolizers, this detoxification pathway becomes saturated and consequently NAPQI accumulates.

Indications

Please help improve this article by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (January 2009)

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that paracetamol be given to children with fever higher than 38.5 C (101.3 F).

Paracetamol is much more effective[citation needed][who?] than aspirin, especially in patients where excessive gastric acid secretion or prolongation of bleeding time may be a concern. While paracetamol has analgesic and antipyretic properties comparable to those of aspirin, its anti-inflammatory effects are weak. Because paracetamol is well tolerated, available without a prescription, and lacks the gastric side effects of aspirin, it has in recent years increasingly become a common household drug.

Efficacy and side effects

Paracetamol, unlike other common analgesics such as aspirin and ibuprofen, has relatively little anti-inflammatory activity, so it is not considered to be a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID).

Efficacy

Regarding comparative efficacy, studies show conflicting results when compared to NSAIDs. A randomized controlled trial of chronic pain from osteoarthritis in adults found similar benefit from paracetamol and ibuprofen.[unreliable source?] However, a randomized controlled trial of acute musculoskeletal pain in children found that the standard OTC dose of ibuprofen gives greater relief of pain than the standard dose of paracetamol.[unreliable source?]

Adverse effects

In recommended doses, paracetamol does not irritate the lining of the stomach, affect blood coagulation as much as NSAIDs, or affect function of the kidneys.[citation needed] However, some studies have shown that high dose-usage (greater than 2,000 mg per day) does increase the risk of upper gastrointestinal complications such as stomach bleeding. The researchers found that heavy use of aspirin or paracetamol - defined as 300 grams a year (1 g per day on average) - was linked to a condition known as small, indented and calcified kidneys (SICK). Paracetamol is safe in pregnancy, and does not affect the closure of the fetal ductus arteriosus as NSAIDs can. Unlike aspirin, it is safe in children, as paracetamol is not associated with a risk of Reye's syndrome in children with viral illnesses.

Like NSAIDs and unlike opioid analgesics, paracetamol has not been found to cause euphoria or alter mood in any way. In 2008, the largest study to date on the long term side effects of paracetamol in children was published in The Lancet. Conducted on over 200,000 children in 31 countries, the study found that the use of paracetamol for fever in the first year of life was associated with an increase in the incidence of asthmatic symptoms at 67 years, and that paracetamol use, both in the first year of life and in children aged 67 years, was associated with an increased incidence of rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema. The authors acknowledged that their "findings might have been due to confounding by indication", i.e. that the association may not be causal but rather due to the disease being treated with paracetamol, and emphasized that further research was needed. Furthermore a number of editorials, comments, correspondence and their replies have been published in The Lancet concerning the methodology and conclusions of this study. The UK regulatory body the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, also reviewed this research and published a number of concerns over data interpretation, and offer the following advice for healthcare professionals, parents, and carers: "The results of this new study do not necessitate any change to the current guidance for use in children. Paracetamol remains a safe and appropriate choice of analgesic in children. There is insufficient evidence from this research to change guidance regarding the use of antipyretics in children."

Toxicity

Main articles: Paracetamol toxicity and Analgesic nephropathy

Excessive use of paracetamol can damage multiple organs, especially the liver and kidney. In both organs, toxicity from paracetamol is not from the drug itself but from one of its metabolites, N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine (NAPQI). In the liver, the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2E1 and CYP3A4 are primarily responsible for the conversion of paracetamol to NAPQI. In the kidney, cyclooxygenases are the principal route by which paracetamol is converted to NAPQI. Paracetamol overdose leads to the accumulation of NAPQI, which undergoes conjugation with glutathione. Conjugation depletes glutathione, a natural antioxidant. This in combination with direct cellular injury by NAPQI, leads to cell damage and death.

Paracetamol hepatotoxicity is, by far, the most common cause of acute liver failure in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Paracetamol overdose results in more calls to poison control centers in the US than overdose of any other pharmacological substance. Signs and symptoms of paracetamol toxicity may initially be absent or vague. Untreated, overdose can lead to liver failure and death within days. Treatment is aimed at removing the paracetamol from the body and replacing glutathione. Activated charcoal can be used to decrease absorption of paracetamol if the patient presents for treatment soon after the overdose. While the antidote, acetylcysteine, (also called N-acetylcysteine or NAC) acts as a precursor for glutathione helping the body regenerate enough to prevent damage to the liver, a liver transplant is often required if damage to the liver becomes severe.

There are tablets avaliable (Brandname in the UK Paradote) which combine Paracetamol with an antidote (Methionine), to protect the liver in case of an overdose.

In June 2009 an FDA advisory committee recommended that new restrictions should be placed on paracetamol to help protect people from the potential toxic effects, however, the FDA has not implemented their recomendations as at March 2010.

Effects on animals

Paracetamol is extremely toxic to cats. Cats lack the necessary glucuronyl transferase enzymes to safely break paracetamol down, and minute portions of a tablet may prove fatal. Initial symptoms include vomiting, salivation and discolouration of the tongue and gums. Unlike an overdose in humans, liver damage is rarely the cause of death; instead, methaemoglobin formation and the production of Heinz bodies in red blood cells inhibit oxygen transport by the blood, causing asphyxiation (methemoglobemia and hemolytic anemia). Treatment with N-acetylcysteine, methylene blue or both is sometimes effective after the ingestion of small doses of paracetamol. According to one paper female cats may have a better survival rate although sample size was small.

Although paracetamol is believed to have no significant anti-inflammatory activity, it has been reported to be as effective as aspirin in the treatment of musculoskeletal pain in dogs. A paracetamol-codeine product (trade name Pardale-V) licensed for use in dogs is available on veterinary prescription in the UK. It should be administered to dogs only on veterinary advice. The main effects of toxicity in dogs is liver damage. N-acetylcysteine treatment is efficacious in dogs when administered within a few hours of paracetamol ingestion.

Paracetamol is also lethal to snakes, and has been suggested as chemical control program for the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) in Guam.

References

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^ doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2006.00754.x

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External links

Pharmacy and Pharmacology portal

Paracetamol at Chemsynthesis

Paracetamol Information Centre

The Julius Axelrod Papers

FDA: Safe Use of Over-the-Counter Pain Relievers/Fever Reducers

FDA: Consumer Update "Acetaminophen and Liver Injury: Q and A for Consumers" (link)

FDA: Consumer Update "Acetaminophen and Liver Injury: Q and A for Consumers" (PDF)

U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal - Paracetamol

v  d  e

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Classical cannabinoids

(Dibenzopyrans)

A-40174  A-41988  A-42574  Ajulemic acid  AM-087  AM-411  AM-855  AM-905  AM-906  AM-919  AM-938  AM-4030  AMG-1  AMG-3  AMG-36  AMG-41  Dexanabinol (HU-211)  DMHP  Dronabinol  HHC  HU-210  HU-243  JWH-051  JWH-133  JWH-139  JWH-229  JWH-359  L-759,633  L-759,656  Levonantradol (CP 50,5561)  Nabazenil  Nabidrox (Canbisol)  Nabilone  Nabitan  Naboctate  O-806  O-823  O-1057  O-1125  O-1238  O-2545  O-2694  Parahexyl  Perrottetinene  Pirnabine  THC-O-acetate  THC-O-phosphate

Nonclassical cannabinoids

CP 47,497  CP 55,244  CP 55,940  HU-308  Nonabine  SPA-229  Tinabinol  2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-1-(2,6-dihydroxy-4-nonylphenyl)cyclohex-1-ene

Aminoalkylindoles

AM-630  AM-694  AM-1241  JWH-007  JWH-015  JWH-018  JWH-073  JWH-081  JWH-122  JWH-167  JWH-200  JWH-203  JWH-210  JWH-249  JWH-250  JWH-398  GW-405,833 (L-768,242)  Pravadoline  WIN 55,212-2

Aminoalkylpyrroles

JWH-030  JWH-147  JWH-307

Eicosanoids

AM-883  Arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide  Arachidonylcyclopropylamide  Methanandamide  O-585  O-689  O-1812  O-1860  O-1861

Others

Abnormal cannabidiol  BAY 38-7271  BAY 59-3074  CB-13  GW-842,166X  JWH-171  O-1918  O-2220  Leelamine  Org 28611  VSN-16

Endocannabinoid

activity enhancers

AM-404  CAY-10401  CAY-10402  JZL184  N-arachidonoyl-serotonin  O-1624  PF-622  PF-750  PF-3845  URB-597  URB-602  Genistein  Arvanil  Olvanil  Kaempferol  Biochanin A  URB-754

Cannabinoid receptor

antagonists and

inverse agonists

AM-251  AM-281  AM-630  BML-190  CAY-10508  CB-25  CB-52  Drinabant  Ibipinabant  JTE-907  LY-320,135  MK-9470  NESS-0327  O-1184  O-1248  O-2050  O-2654  Org 27569  Otenabant  Rimonabant  SR-144,528  Surinabant  Taranabant  VCHSR



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