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Background
Structuring includes the act of parceling large financial transactions into smaller transactions to avoid scrutiny by regulators or law enforcement. Structuring often appears in federal indictments related to money laundering, fraud, and other financial crimes. The term "smurfing" is derived from the image of the cartoon characters, The Smurfs, having a large group of many small entities. Miami-based lawyer Gregory Baldwin is said to have coined the term in the 1980s.
Typically each of the smaller transaction is below some statutory limit, that does not require a financial institution to file a report with a government agency. Criminal enterprises often employ several agents (smurfs) to make the transaction. However, even otherwise legal business practices can be considered a crime, as detailed recently by an article in Forbes magazine. The article reports that even if "the money is from a legal source, the government can charge you with a crime and/or demand you forfeit cash" if you apply the structuring method knowingly. xerox docutech 135
The term is also applied to activity associated with controlled substances such as pseudoephedrine[citation needed]. In this context the agent will make purchases of small, legal amounts from several drug and grocery stores intent to aggregate the lot for use in the illegal production of methamphetamine.[citation needed] sharp copier parts
Structuring in everyday life ricoh copier parts
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (February 2010)
Structuring need not be illegal. It is quite common for people to split transactions for legitimate reasons.
In a gambling market bets may be placed at different times with the aim of getting better odds. A very large bet may tip off the house and, even if there is in fact no insider knowledge, likely reduce the odds. Spreading the bets around can disguise this. The bets themselves may be perfectly legal; the aim is to get the best odds.
In the United Kingdom and in some other countries, over-the-counter drugs such as paracetemol and codeine may only be bought in small quantities. If one wishes to buy more, one simply exits the store and returns (or even just goes to another counter).
Discount stores often have loss leaders with "maximum purchase 10" (for example). Again, anyone wanting more than 10 simply buys 10 and returns to buy more.
Of course, in all these cases, just as with financial transactions, suspicion can still be raised if the point is pushed too far; and the same remedies apply: have someone else buy the goods, leave time between the transactions, and so on.
United States practice
In the United States, the Bank Secrecy Act requires the filing of a currency transaction report (CTR) for transactions of more than $10,000 in currency (US or foreign). Financial institutions suspecting deposit structuring with intent to avoid the law are required to file a suspicious activity report.
Title 31 of the United States Code, section 5324, provides (in part):
No person shall, for the purpose of evading the reporting requirements of section 5313 (a) or 5325 or any regulation prescribed under any such section, the reporting or record keeping requirements imposed by any order issued under section 5326, or the record keeping requirements imposed by any regulation prescribed under section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act or section 123 of Public Law 91508 [...] (3) structure or assist in structuring, or attempt to structure or assist in structuring, any transaction with one or more domestic financial institutions.
Section 5324 further provides that a violation of this provision may be punished by a fine or up to five years in prison, or both.
Regulatory Table
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008)
Jurisdiction
Single Transaction
Notes
Australia
AU$10,000
Although there are no weekly or monthly limits, any parceling to evade the rules is a criminal offence.
Brazil
varies
Depends on transaction type.
Canada
CA$10,000
All transactions totaling CA$10,000 within a 24 hour period are subject to reporting. Certain businesses may qualify for Alternative to Large Cash Transaction (ALCT) reporting.
Fiji
FJ$1,100
Individuals are subject to FJ$7,700 in a given week. Businesses engaged as investor tourism operators have no limit.
France
3,000
Germany
15,000
Guyana
USD10,000
Ireland
10,000
India
Rs. 50,000
Italy
12,500
Lithuania
LTL10,000
Netherlands
15,000
New Zealand
NZ$10,000
Philippines
PHP500,000
Portugal
10,000
Romania
10,000
Spain
3,000
Sweden
10,000
Thailand
US$58,000
Turkey
US$50,000
United States
US$10,000
See Also
Money Laundering Control Act
References
^ Internal Revenue Service (2006-06-01). "Part IV Examining Process; Chapter 26 Bank Secrecy Act; Section 13 Structuring". Internal Revenue Manual. Washington, D.C.: US Treasury Department. OCLC 37305546. http://www.irs.gov/irm/part4/ch25s17.html. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
^ Gross, Samantha; Barrett, Devlin (11 March 2008). "Spitzer Tripped Up on Laws He Enforced". Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Mar11/0,4670,SpitzerTheMoneyTrail,00.html. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
^ Novack, Janet (7 April 2008). "My Big Fat IRS case". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/business/forbes/2008/0407/038.html. Retrieved 2008-03-30.
^ 31 U.S.C. 5324(d)(1).
^ Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre (September 2002). "AUSTRAC Guideline No. 1: Suspect Transaction Reporting" (.PDF). Financial Transaction Reports Act 1988. Government of Australia. http://www.austrac.gov.au/files/2003_guideline_1_suspect_transaction_reporting.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
^ Conselho de Controle de Atividades Financeiras. "Lavagem de Dinheiro" (in Portuguese). Ministrio da Fazenda. http://www.coaf.fazenda.gov.br/conteudo/publicacoes. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
^ Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada (FINTRAC)
^ Dipartimento del Tesoro. "Antiriciclaggio" (in Italian). Ministero dell'Economia e delle Finanze. http://www.dt.tesoro.it/Aree-Docum/Prevenzion/Antiriciclaggio/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
^ FIU-Nederland. "Meldingen Ongebruikelijke Transacties" (in Dutch). Ministerie van Justitie. http://www.justitie.nl/mot/. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
^ Europa Taxation and Customs Union (21 December 2007). "Cash controls". European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/customs/customs_controls/cash_controls/index_en.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
^ Netipoom Maysakun. "MONEY LAUNDERING IN THAILAND" (PDF). The United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/PDF_rms/no73/12_p86-p94.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
External links
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network ruling on structuring
Categories: Banking terms and equipment | Commercial crimes | Tax evasionHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 | Articles that may contain original research from February 2010 | All articles that may contain original research | Articles needing additional references from March 2008 | All articles needing additional references
Sunday, April 25, 2010
Structuring
Sinkhole
China Product
Mechanisms
Sinkholes near the Dead Sea, formed by dissolution of underground salt by incoming freshwater, as a result of a continuing sea level drop.
A special type of sinkhole - formed by rainwater leaking through the pavement and carrying dirt into a ruptured sewer pipe. led key chain flashlight
Mechanisms of formation may include the gradual removal of slightly soluble bedrock (such as limestone) by percolating water, the collapse of a cave roof, or a lowering of the water table. Occasionally a sinkhole may exhibit a visible opening into a cave below. In the case of exceptionally large sinkholes, such as Cedar Sink at Mammoth Cave National Park, USA, a stream or river may be visible across its bottom flowing from one side to the other. novelty beach towels
Sinkholes are common where the rock below the land surface is limestone, carbonate rock, salt beds, or rocks that can naturally be dissolved by circulating ground water. As the rock dissolves, spaces and caverns develop underground. These sinkholes can be dramatic because the surface land usually stays intact until there is not enough support. Then a sudden collapse of the land surface can occur. crystal giftware
Sinkholes can be human-induced. New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use practices, especially from ground-water pumping, construction, and development practices. Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and new water-diversion systems are developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created. The substantial weight of the new material can trigger an underground collapse of supporting material, thus causing a sinkhole.
Occurrence
Sinkholes may capture surface drainage for running or standing water, but may also form in currently high and dry locations. The state of Florida in the USA is known for having frequent sinkholes, especially in the central part of the state. The Murge area in southern Italy also has numerous sinkholes. Sinkholes can be formed in retention ponds from large amounts of rain.
Sinkholes are usually but not always linked with karst landscapes. In such regions, there may be hundreds or even thousands of sinkholes in a small area so that the surface as seen from the air looks pock-marked, and there are no surface streams because all drainage occurs sub-surface.
The Great Blue Hole, located near Ambergris Caye, Belize.
Sinkholes have been used for centuries as disposal sites for various forms of waste. A consequence of this is the pollution of groundwater resources, with serious health implications in such areas. In contrast, the Maya civilization sometimes used sinkholes in the Yucatn Peninsula (known as cenotes) as places to deposit precious items and sacrifices.
Sinkholes also form from human activity, such as the rare but still occasional collapse of abandoned mines in places like West Virginia, USA. More commonly, sinkholes occur in urban areas due to water main breaks or sewer collapses when old pipes give way. They can also occur from the overpumping and extraction of groundwater and subsurface fluids.
Many sinkholes are found in Northern Michigan. These are prominent in Alpena County in Northeast Michigan. In Lachine, Michigan there are five sinkholes that are found to be very deep , and within two miles of each other. Alpena's visitor information cites their sinkholes as an attraction for visitors to the area. In August 1998 a 16 year old Alpena boy survived a 200+ ft fall in an open sinkhole 3/4 a mile off of Leer road in Lachine, Michigan (The Alpena News 8-21-1998). A majority of sinkholes in Alpena are also found underwater. Many divers explore these on a regular basis.
When sinkholes are very deep or connected to caves, they may offer challenges for experienced cavers or, when water-filled, divers. Some of the most spectacular are the Zacatn cenote in Mexico (the world's deepest water-filled sinkhole), the Boesmansgat sinkhole in South Africa, Sarisariama tepuy in Venezuela, and in the town of Mount Gambier, South Australia. Sinkholes that form in coral reefs and islands that collapse to enormous depths are known as Blue Holes, and often become popular diving spots.
Image of the entire surface water flow of the Alapaha River near Jennings, Florida going into a sinkhole leading to the Floridan Aquifer groundwater.
In the United States, the most damage from sinkholes tends to occur in Florida, Texas, Alabama, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania. Palmyra, Pennsylvania is the sinkhole capital of America.
The overburden sediments that cover buried cavities in the aquifer systems are delicately balanced by groundwater fluid pressure. The water below ground is actually helping to keep the surface soil in place. Groundwater pumping for urban water supply and for irrigation can produce new sinkholes in sinkhole-prone areas. If pumping results in a lowering of groundwater levels, then underground structural failure, and thus, sinkholes, can occur.
See also
Blue Hole
Blyvooruitzicht
Cenote
Dean's Blue Hole
Foiba
Great Blue Hole
Karst topography
Lake-burst
Lake Peigneur disaster
Oak Island
Pipe Creek Sinkhole
Sarisariama
Sinkhole Dersios
Subsidence
Turlough (lake)
Vooroca
Zacatn
Sima Humboldt and Sima Martel
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sinkhole
Florida Sinkhole Guide
Kapsia Cave : Exploration of a Sinkhole in Arkadia, Greece
Video of Sinkhole forming in Texas (May 8, 2008)
Categories: Cave geology | DepressionsHidden categories: Articles with unsourced statements from September 2007 | All articles with unsourced statements
Wardenclyffe Tower
China Product
History
Construction
Tesla's Wardenclyffe plant on Long Island in partial stage of completion. Work on the 55-foot diameter cupola had not yet begun. Note the coal car parked next to the building. From this facility, Tesla hoped to demonstrate wireless transmission of electrical energy across the Atlantic. Circa 1902. tanning lotion samples
Nikola Tesla began planning the Wardenclyffe Tower facility ca. 1898, and in 1901, construction began on the land near Long Island Sound. Architect Stanford White designed the Wardenclyffe facility main building. The tower was designed by W.D. Crow, an associate of White. Funding for Tesla's project was provided by influential industrialists and other venture capitalists. The project was initially backed by the wealthy J. P. Morgan who had invested $150,000 in the facility, (more than $3 million in 2009 dollars). atm neon sign
In June 1902, Tesla moved his laboratory operations from his Houston Street laboratory to Wardenclyffe. However, in 1903, when the tower structure was near completion, it was still not yet functional due to last-minute design changes. Tesla intended for the tower to demonstrate how electrical energy could be transmitted without the need for power lines. A story has arisen that the power consumption could not be metered and Morgan, who could not foresee any financial gain from providing free electricity to everyone, balked. Construction costs eventually exceeded the money provided by Morgan, and additional financiers were reluctant to come forward. (Tesla's other major financier was John Jacob Astor.) By July 1904, Morgan (and the other investors) finally decided they would not provide any additional financing. Morgan also discouraged other investors from backing the project. In May 1905, Tesla's patents on alternating current motors and other methods of power transmission expired, halting royalty payments and causing a severe reduction of funding to the Wardenclyffe Tower. In an attempt to find alternative funding, Tesla advertised the services of the Wardenclyffe facility, but he met with little success. By this time, Tesla had also designed the Tesla turbine at Wardenclyffe and produced Tesla coils for sale to various businesses. custom made neon signs
By 1905, since Tesla could not find any more backers, most of the site's activity had to be shut down. Employees were laid off in 1906, but parts of the building remained in use until 1907. In 1908, the property was foreclosed for the first time. Tesla procured a new mortgage from George C. Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. The facility was partially abandoned around 1911, and the tower structure deteriorated. Between 1912 and 1915, Tesla's finances unraveled, and when the funders wanted to know how they were going to recapture their investments, Tesla was unable to give satisfactory answers. Newspaper headlines of the time labeled it "Tesla's million-dollar folly." The facility's main building was breached and vandalized around this time. Collapse of the Wardenclyffe project may have contributed to the mental breakdown Tesla experienced during this period. Coupled to the personal tragedy of Wardenclyffe was the 1895 fire at 35 South 5th Avenue, New York, in the building which housed Tesla's laboratory. In this fire, he lost much of his equipment, notes and documents. This produced a state of severe depression for Tesla.
Post-Tesla Era
In 1915, legal ownership of the Wardenclyffe property was transferred to George Boldt of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel for a $20,000 debt (about $400,000 in 2009 dollars). In September 1917 during World War I, the tower was blown up with dynamite on orders of the United States Government which feared German spies were using it and that it could be used as a landmark for German submarines. Tesla was not in New York during the tower's destruction.
George Boldt wished to make the property available for sale. On April 20, 1922 Tesla lost an appeal of judgment versus his backers in the second foreclosure. This effectively locked Tesla out of any future development of the facility. In 1925, the property ownership was transferred to Walter L. Johnson of Brooklyn. On March 6, 1939, Plantacres, Inc. purchased the facility's land and subsequently leased it to Peerless Photo Products, Inc. AGFA Corporation bought the property from Peerless and is the current owner. The main building remains standing to this day. Agfa used the site from 1969 to 1992 then closed the facility. The site has undergone a final cleanup of waste produced during its Photo Products era. The clean up was conducted under the scrutiny of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and paid for by AGFA. In 2009 they put the property up for sale for $1,650,000. Agfa has advertised that the land can e delivered fully cleared and level. It says it spent $5 million through September 2008 cleaning up silver and cadmium.
Commemoration efforts
Ruins of the administration building at the corner of Tesla Street and New York Route 25A in July 2009
On February 14, 1967, the nonprofit public benefit corporation Brookhaven Town Historical Trust was established. It selected the Wardenclyffe facility to be designated as a historic site and as the first site to be preserved by the Trust on March 3, 1967. The Brookhaven Town Historic Trust was rescinded by resolution on Feb 1, 1972. There were never any appointments made after a legal opinion was received; it was never set up properly. On 7 July 1976, a plaque from Yugoslavia was installed by representatives from Brookhaven National Laboratory near the entrance of the building. It reads:
IN THIS BUILDING
DESIGNED BY STANFORD WHITE, ARCHITECT
NIKOLA TESLA
BORN SMILJAN, YUGOSLAVIA 1856IED NEW YORK, U.S.A. 1943
CONSTRUCTED IN 1901-1905 WARDENCLYFFE
HUGE RADIO STATION WITH ANTENNA TOWER
187 FEET HIGH /DESTROYED 1917/, WHICH
WAS TO HAVE SERVED AS HIS FIRST WORLD
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.
IN MEMORY OF 120TH ANNIVERSARY OF TESLA'S BIRTH
AND 200TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE U.S.A. INDEPENDENCE
July 10, 1976
The sign was stolen from the property in November 2009. An anonymous benefactor is offering a $2000 reward if it is returned to the property.
National landmarking of the structure is awaiting completion of plant decommissioning activities by its present owner.
In 1976, an application was filed to nominate the main building for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. It failed to get approval. In 1994, the campaign for placement of the Wardenclyffe facility on the National Register of Historic Places of New York was renewed. In October 1994 a second Application for formal nomination was filed. The New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation conducted inspections and determined the facility meets New York State criteria for historic designation. A second visit was made on February 25, 2009.
Facility grounds
Artistic representation of the station completed, including the tower structure.
Wardenclyffe is located near the Shoreham Post Office and Shoreham Fire House on Route 25A in Shoreham, Long Island, New York. Wardenclyffe was divided into two main sections. The tower, which was located in the back, and the main building compose the entire facility grounds. At one time the property was about 200 acres. Now it consists of slightly less than 16 acres.
The tower was 187 feet (57 meters) tall and 68 feet (20.7 m) in diameter. It had a supporting structure that was built of wood. It had a 55-ton steel (some report it was a better conducting material, such as copper) hemispherical structure at the top (referred to as a cupola). The tower was designed by one of Stanford White's associates. The design of this structure was such as to allow each piece to be taken out if needed and replaced as necessary. Beneath the tower, a shaft sank 120 feet (36.6 m) into the ground. Sixteen iron pipes were placed one length after another 300 additional feet (94.4 m) in order for the machine, in Tesla's words, "to have a grip on the earth so the whole of this globe can quiver." At this depth, telluric currents of the Earth could be transceived.
The main building occupied the rest of the facility grounds. It included a laboratory area, instrument room, boiler room, generator room and machine shop. Inside the main building, there were electromechanical devices, electrical generators, electrical transformers, glass blowing equipment, X-ray devices, Tesla coils, a remote controlled boat, cases with bulbs and tubes, wires, cables, a library, and an office. It was constructed in the style of the Italian Renaissance.
Theories of operation
The transmission of electrical energy
In 1891 and 1892, Tesla had used an oscillatory transformer that bears his name in demonstration lectures delivered before meetings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) in New York City" and the Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) in London. Of two striking results that Tesla demonstrated, one was that the wireless transmission of electrical energy was possible. A later presentation, titled "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena" (Philadelphia/St. Louis; Franklin Institute in 1893), was a key event in the invention of radio and could also be said to have begun the development of Wardenclyffe.
One-wire transmission
In the early presentations, the first experiment to be demonstrated was the operation of light and motive devices connected by a single wire to only one terminal of a high frequency induction coil, presented during the 1891 New York City lecture at Columbia University. While a single terminal incandescent lamp connected to one of an induction coil secondary terminals does not form a closed circuit n the ordinary acceptance of the term, the circuit is closed in the sense that a return path is established back to the secondary by what Tesla called lectrostatic induction (or 'displacement currents'). This is due to the fact that the lamp filament or refractory button has capacitance relative to the coil free terminal and environment and the secondary free terminal also has capacitance relative to the lamp and environment. At high frequencies, the displacement current required to charge these capacitances becomes sufficient to light the lamp.
Wireless transmission
The Tesla effect. A "world system" for "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" that depends upon electrical conductivity was proposed by Tesla. Through longitudinal waves, an operator uses the Tesla effect in the wireless transfer of energy to a receiving device. (Please note that the above image is rotated 90deg counterclockwise.)
The second result demonstrated how energy could be made to go through space without any connecting wires. This was the first step towards a practical wireless system. The wireless energy transmission effect involved the creation of an electric field between two metal plates, each being connected to one terminal of an induction coil secondary winding. Once again, a light-producing device (in this case a gas discharge tube) was used as a means of detecting the presence of the transmitted energy. "The most striking result obtained" involved the lighting of two partially evacuated tubes in an alternating electrostatic field while held in the hand of the experimenter. In Tesla's words,
... I suspend a sheet of metal a distance from the ceiling on insulating cords and connect it to one terminal of the induction coil, the other terminal being preferably connected to the ground. Or else I suspend two sheets as illustrated in Fig. 29 / 125, each sheet being connected with one of the terminals of the coil, and their size being carefully determined. An exhausted tube may then be carried in the hand anywhere between the sheets or placed anywhere, even a certain distance beyond them; it remains always luminous.
Here Tesla describes two different types of wireless transmitters, both employing a high-tension induction coil. The first, referred to here as the type-one transmitter, had a sheet of metal suspended from the ceiling and connected to one of the induction coil terminals. The other terminal was connected to ground. The second, referred to here as the type-two transmitter, had two sheets of metal suspended from the ceiling, each being connected with one of the coil terminals.
Theory of wireless transmission
While working to develop an explanation for the two observed effects mentioned above, Tesla recognized that electrical energy could be projected outward into space and detected by a receiving instrument in the general vicinity of the source without the need for any interconnecting wires. He went on to develop two theories related to these observations, which are:
By using two type-one sources positioned at distant points on the Earth surface, it is possible to induce a flow of electrical current between them.
By incorporating a portion of the Earth as part of a powerful type-two oscillator the disturbance can be impressed upon the Earth and detected t great distance, or even all over the surface of the globe.22]
Tesla also made the assumption that the Earth is a charged body floating in space.
A point of great importance would be first to know what is the capacity of the Earth? and what charge does it contain if electrified? Though we have no positive evidence of a charged body existing in space without other oppositely electrified bodies being near, there is a fair probability that the Earth is such a body, for by whatever process it was separated from other bodiesnd this is the accepted view of its origint must have retained a charge, as occurs in all processes of mechanical separation.
Tesla was familiar with demonstrations that involved the charging of Leyden jar capacitors and isolated metal spheres with electrostatic influence machines (in modern terms, high-voltage (kV), low-current(A) electrostatic generators). By bringing these elements into close proximity with each other, and also by making direct contact followed by their separation the charge can be manipulated. He surely had this in mind in the creation of his mental image, not being able to know that the model of Earth origin was inaccurate. The presently accepted model of planetary origin is one of accretion and collision.
If it be a charged body insulated in space its capacity should be extremely small, less than one-thousandth of a farad.
We now know that the Earth is, in fact, a charged body, made so by processest least in partelated to the interaction between the continuous stream of charged particles called the solar wind that flows outward from the center of our solar system and Earth magnetosphere. And we also know that Tesla's capacitance estimate was correct: Earth's self-capacitance is about 710 microfarads.
But the upper strata of the air are conducting, and so, perhaps, is the medium in free space beyond the atmosphere, and these may contain an opposite charge. Then the capacity might be incomparably greater.
We now also know that Earth's upper atmospheric strata are conducting, or can be made so.
In any case it is of the greatest importance to get an idea of what quantity of electricity the Earth contains.
An additional condition of which we are now aware is that the Earth possesses a naturally existing negative charge with respect to the conducting region of the atmosphere beginning at an elevation of about 50 km. The potential difference between the Earth and this region is on the order of 400,000 volts. Near the Earth's surface there is a ubiquitous downward directed E-field of about 100 V/m. Tesla referred to this charge as the lectric niveau or electric level.
It is difficult to say whether we shall ever acquire this necessary knowledge, but there is hope that we may, and that is, by means of electrical resonance. If ever we can ascertain at what period the Earth's charge, when disturbed, oscillates with respect to an oppositely electrified system or known circuit, we shall know a fact possibly of the greatest importance to the welfare of the human race. I propose to seek for the period by means of an electrical oscillator, or a source of alternating electric currents...
Some maintain the 200 kW wireless facility would have functioned by the propagation of electromagnetic radiation, or radio waves, then called Hertzian radiation.
By Tesla's own account, his earth resonance system works by the creation of powerful disturbances in Earth's natural electric charge. The Wardenclyffe facility had a dual purpose. In addition to point-to-point telecommunications and broadcasting it was also intended to demonstrate the transmission of electrical power on a reduced scale. He stated,
It is intended to give practical demonstrations of these principles with the plant illustrated. As soon as completed, it will be possible for a business man in New York to dictate instructions, and have them instantly appear in type at his office in London or elsewhere. He will be able to call up, from his desk, and talk to any telephone subscriber on the globe, without any change whatever in the existing equipment. An inexpensive instrument, not bigger than a watch, will enable its bearer to hear anywhere, on sea or land, music or song, the speech of a political leader, the address of an eminent man of science, or the sermon of an eloquent clergyman, delivered in some other place, however distant. In the same manner any picture, character, drawing, or print can be transferred from one to another place. Millions of such instruments can be operated from but one plant of this kind. More important than all of this, however, will be the transmission of power, without wires, which will be shown on a scale large enough to carry conviction.
Wardenclyffe was the first of many installations to be constructed near major population centers around the world. If Tesla's plans had moved forward without interruption the Long Island prototype would have been followed by a second plant built somewhere along the southwest coast of England, perhaps in Cornwall. Each of these towers would have been a large magnifying transmitter of a design loosely based upon the apparatus which Tesla assembled at the Colorado Springs Experimental Station in 1899.
"... The plant in Colorado was merely designed in the same sense as a naval constructor designs first a small model to ascertain all the quantities before he embarks on the construction of a big vessel. I had already planned most of the details of the commercial plant, subsequently put up at Long Island, except that at that time the location was not settled upon. The Colorado plant I have used in determining the construction of the various parts, and the experiments which were carried on there were for the practical purpose of enabling me to design the transmitters and receivers which I was to employ in the large commercial plant subsequently erected..."
Using a global array of these magnifying transmitters, it was Tesla's plan to establish what he called the "World System," providing multi-channel global broadcasting, an array of secure wireless telecommunications services, and a long range aid to navigation, including means for the precise synchronization of clocks. In a more highly developed state he envisioned the World System would expand to include the wireless industrial transmission of electric power.
The installation was also used by Tesla as a laboratory for designing a power distribution system that would allow electricity to be transmitted over great distances without wires. This cannot be accomplished with what Tesla called "Hertz waves," which explains why Wardenclyffe was designed in a different manner than modern radio transmitters. Instead of distributing electricity through copper wire, remote users would be able to "receive" power through a buried ground connection, along with a spherical antenna terminal mounted just above their roof. At the time the power grid was quite limited in terms of who it reached and the Wardenclyffe prototype represented a way in which to significantly reduce the cost of "electrifying" the countryside. Tesla called his wireless technique the "disturbed charge of ground and air method".
The prototype facility was also meant to serve as a reduced-scale model for a global system of towers to transmit electrical energy to users in the form of earth currents and magnetohydrodynamic waves. There is evidence that Wardenclyffe would have used extremely low frequency signals combined with higher frequency signals. In practice, the transmitter electrically influences both the Earth and the space above it. He made a point of describing the process as being essentially the same as transmitting electricity by conduction through a wire. Tesla stated that electrical energy can be efficiently transmitted back and forth between World System transmitter / receiver facilities via electrical conduction through the ground. To accommodate this plan each facility includes one or two elevated terminal connections and one or two ground terminal connections.
Tesla clearly specified the Earth as being one of the conducting media involved in ground and air system technology. The other specified medium is the atmosphere above 5 miles (8.0 km) elevation. While not an ohmic conductor, in this region of the troposphere and upwards, the density or pressure is sufficiently reduced to so that, according to Tesla theory, the atmosphere insulating properties can be easily impaired, allowing an electric current to flow. His theory further states that the conducting region is developed through the process of atmospheric ionization, in which the effected portions thereof are changed to plasma. The presence of the magnetic fields developed by each plant helical resonator suggests that an embedded magnetic field and flux linkage is also involved. Flux linkage with Earth natural magnetic field is also a possibility, especially in the case of an earth resonance transmission system.
The atmosphere below 5 miles (8.0 km) is also viewed as a propagating medium for a portion of the above-ground circuit, and, being an insulating medium, electrostatic induction would be involved rather than true electrical conduction. Tesla felt that with a sufficiently high electrical potential on the elevated terminal the practical limitation imposed upon its height could be overcome. He anticipated that a highly energetic transmitter, as was intended at Wardenclyffe, would charge the elevated terminal to the point where the atmosphere around and above the facility would break down and become ionized, leading to a flow of true conduction currents between the two terminals by a path up to and through the troposphere, and back down to the other facility. The ionization of the atmosphere directly above the elevated terminals would be facilitated by the use of an ionizing beam of ultraviolet radiation to form what might be called a high-voltage plasma transmission line. [ed. see maxwellian waves and waves in plasmas] Powered by an industrial alternator, a generator facility's tower was intended to inject large amounts of energy into a natural Earth circuit, using the Earth-Ionosphere network as the transmission circuit.
In various writings, Tesla explained that the Earth itself behaves as a resonant LC circuit when it is electrically excited at certain frequencies. At Wardenclyffe he operated at frequencies ranging from 1,000 Hz to 100 kHz. Tesla found the frequency range up to 30 35 kHz o be most economical. Excitation of earth resonance at or near a fundamental frequency of about 11.7 Hz suggests energy transmission by means of a spherical conductor ingle-wire surface wave transmission line mode. A Schumann resonance mode (the fundamental frequency being about 7.5 to 7.9 Hz) is probably not involved. The entire Earth can be electrically resonated with a single type-two source, so an earth-resonance based system would require, at a minimum, that only one generating facility be constructed. Alternatively, two distantly spaced type-one generating facilities could be constructed. Such a system would not be so dependent upon the excitation of an earth-resonance mode. In either case a surface or ground wave, similar to the Zenneck wave would be utilized. Artificially induced earth currents would be utilized. According to Tesla, the planet's large cross-sectional area provides a low resistance path for the flow of earth currents. The greatest losses are apt to occur at the points where the transmitting / receiving plants and dedicated receiving stations are connected with the ground. This is why Tesla stated,
You see the underground work is one of the most expensive parts of the tower. In this system that I have invented it is necessary for the machine to get a grip of the Earth, otherwise it cannot shake the Earth. It has to have a grip on the Earth so that the whole of this globe can quiver, and to do that it is necessary to carry out a very expensive construction.
To close the circuit a second path would be established between the two type-one plants' elevated high-voltage terminals through the rarefied atmospheric strata above five miles (8 km). The connection would be made by some combination of electrostatic induction and electrical conduction through plasma. While a number of his wireless patents, including "Apparatus for transmitting electrical energy", U.S. Patent No. 1,119,732, December 1, 1914, describe a system which uses the plasma-conduction scheme, his "Art of transmitting electrical energy through the natural mediums", U.S. Patent No. 787,412, April 18, 1905 and some of his Wardenclyffe design notes from 1901 show that he also had a plan to electrostatically induce oscillations in the potential associated with Earth's self-capacitance by rapidly transferring large amounts of electrical charge between the large topload capacitance and the self-capacitance of the whole Earth. The type-two transmitter is especially designed for this purpose. Tesla wrote,
The specific plan of producing the stationary waves, here-in described, might be departed from. For example, the circuit which impresses the powerful oscillations upon the earth might be connected to the latter at two points.
Tesla believed that a fully developed system with transmission-reception stations based upon the Wardenclyffe prototype would permit wireless transmission and reception across large distances with negligible losses. According to Dennis Papadopoulos, professor of physics at the University of Maryland, Tesla was incorrect. He stated that although wireless power transfer through the Earth and the ionosphere is possible, not enough power can be transmitted to turn on light bulbs for example, because the current would need to be sufficiently high and power would be dissipated due to thermal losses. Tesla stated that wireless transmission of power could be achieved using a high voltage and a low current.[citation needed]
In the course of this work, I mastered the technique of high potentials sufficiently for enabling me to construct and operate, in 1899, a wireless transmitter developing up to twenty million volts. Some time before I contemplated the possibility of transmitting such high tension currents over a narrow beam of radiant energy ionizing the air and rendering it, in measure, conductive. After preliminary laboratory experiments, I made tests on a large scale with the transmitter referred to and a beam of ultra-violet rays of great energy in an attempt to conduct the current to the high rarefied strata of the air and thus create an auroral such as might be utilized for illumination, especially of oceans at night. I found that there was some virtue in the principal but the results did not justify the hope of important practical applications. . . .
Despite the ridicule he has been subjected to by scientists for many years, many of Tesla's ideas are being demonstrated to be essentially correct. For example he correctly predicted the existence of the ionosphere and electrical resonance of the Earth-atmosphere system. Resonance of the earth-ionosphere cavity with a fundamental frequency in the vicinity of 7.3 Hz was demonstrated in the 1950s as the Schumann resonance. The latter phenomenon was named after Schumann, for although Tesla had detected a resonance of the Earth-atmosphere system, he was not taken seriously in his time. Furthermore, Tesla appears to have excited a different terrestrial resonance mode with a fundamental frequency of 11.78 Hz.
Electrical transmission and reception
Variants were suggested by Tesla for receiving power from electromagnetic radiation, or alternating electric near fields, of practicable frequency, and for exploiting the vertical voltage gradient in the Earth's atmosphere. Tesla performed experiments of the former type with some success, particularly in the area of receiving what was probably the near electric field of a large transmitting Tesla coil some distance away. He recognized that his early experiments involved the propagation of ordinary radio waves, that is to say Hertzian waves, electromagnetic waves propagated in space without artificial guide.
In 1919 Nikola Tesla wrote,
The popular impression is that my wireless work was begun in 1893, but as a matter of fact I spent the two preceding years in investigations, employing forms of apparatus, some of which were almost like those of today. It was clear to me from the very start that the successful consummation could only be brought about by a number of radical improvements. Suitable high frequency generators and electrical oscillators had first to be produced. The energy of these had to be transformed in effective transmitters and collected at a distance in proper receivers. Such a system would be manifestly circumscribed in its usefulness if all extraneous interference were not prevented and exclusiveness secured. In time, however, I recognized that devices of this kind, to be most effective and efficient, should be designed with due regard to the physical properties of this planet and the electrical conditions obtaining on the same.
Tesla stated that one of the requirements of the world wireless system was the construction of resonant receivers. The helical resonator of a Tesla Coil and its elevated terminal can be used in receive mode. Tesla himself demonstrated wireless transmission of electrical energy from his transmitter to his receiver. These concepts and methods are part of his wireless transmission system (US1119732 Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy 1902 January 18). Tesla made a proposal that there needed to be many more than thirty transmission-reception stations worldwide. In one form of receiving circuit the two input terminals are connected each to a device adapted to reverse polarity at predetermined intervals of time and charge a capacitor. This form of Tesla system receiver has means for commutating the current impulses in the charging circuit so as to render them suitable for charging the storage device, a device for closing the receiving-circuit, and means for causing the receiver to be operated by the energy accumulated.
Tesla coil in one experiment of many conducted in Colorado Springs. This is a grounded tuned coil in resonance with a distant transmitter; Light is glowing near the bottom.
In another form of Tesla system receiver, a Tesla receiving transformer acts as a step-down transformer with high current output. The parameters of a Tesla Coil transmitter are identically applicable to it being a receiver (e.g., an antenna circuit), due to reciprocity. Impedance, generally though, is not applied in an obvious way; for electrical impedance, the impedance at the load (e.g., where the power is consumed) is most critical and, for a Tesla Coil receiver, this is at the point of utilization (such as at an induction motor) rather than at the receiving node. Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use. Commonly, impedance is adjusted at the load with a tuner or a matching networks composed of inductors and capacitors.
A Tesla Coil can receive electromagnetic impulses from atmospheric electricity and radiant energy, besides normal wireless transmissions. Radiant energy throws off with great velocity minute particles which are strongly electrified and other rays falling on the insulated-conductor connected to a condenser (i.e., a capacitor) can cause the condenser to indefinitely charge electrically. The helical resonator can be "shock excited" due to radiant energy disturbances not only at the fundamental wave at one-quarter wave-length but also is excited at its harmonics. Hertzian methods can be used to excite the Tesla Antenna with limitations that result in great disadvantages for utilization, though. The methods of ground conduction and the various induction methods can also be used to excite the Tesla Antenna, but are again at a disadvantages for utilization. The charging-circuit can be adapted to be energized by the action of various other disturbances and effects at a distance. Arbitrary and intermittent oscillations that are propagated via conduction to the receiving resonator will charge the receiver's capacitor and utilize the potential energy to greater effect. Various radiations can be used to charge and discharge conductors, with the radiations considered electromagnetic vibrations of various wavelengths and ionizing potential. The Tesla Antenna utilizes the effects or disturbances to charge a storage device with energy from an external source (natural or man-made) and controls the charging of said device by the actions of the effects or disturbances (during succeeding intervals of time determined by means of such effects and disturbances corresponding in succession and duration of the effects and disturbances). The stored energy can also be used to operate the receiving device. The accumulated energy can, for example, operate a transformer by discharging through a primary circuit at predetermined times which, from the secondary currents, operate the receiving device.
While Tesla Coils can be used for these purposes, much of the public and media attention is toward the transmitting applications of the Tesla Coil since the plasma discharges are fascinating to most people. Regardless of this fact, Tesla did suggest that this variation of the Tesla coil could utilize the phantom loop effect to form a circuit to induct energy from the Earth's magnetic field and other radiant energy sources (including, but not limited to, electrostatics). With regard to Tesla's statements on the harnessing of natural phenomena to obtain electric power, he stated:
Ere many generations pass, our machinery will be driven by a power obtainable at any point of the universe. "Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency" (February 1892)
Tesla stated that the output power from these devices, attained from Hertzian methods of charging, was low, but alternative charging means are available. Tesla receivers operated correctly act as a step-down transformer with high current output. There are, to date, no commercial power generation entities or businesses that have utilized this technology to full effect. The power levels achieved by Tesla Coil receivers have, thus far, been a fraction of the output power of the transmitters.[citation needed]
Tesla's ray
Main articles: Teleforce, Particle beam weapon, and Directed-energy weapon
Related to the operation and utilization of Wardenclyffe Tower was Nikola Tesla's work on a macroscopic particle beam weapon called Teleforce in the 1930s. A Wardenclyffe styled facility which included the weapon was contemplated by Tesla. He offered it to Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company in early 1934. It was also offered to the US War Department, Great Britain, and Yugoslavia. A descriptive 17-page type-written document on Tesla's office letterhead titled, "New Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-Dispersive Energy Through Natural Media," which presently exists in the Nikola Tesla Museum archive in Belgrade, shows that his macroscopic particle beam, also dubbed the "Peace Ray" or the "death ray" by contemporary media, was a narrow stream of charged clusters of mercury or tungsten accelerated by high voltage, produced by either a huge Van de Graaff generator or Tesla Coil. Immediately after his death, a component of the particle beam projector that may have been found among Tesla's possessions is said to have disappeared. Russian spies reportedly raided the room and the safe containing the schematics of the "death ray". The FBI never found any of the important parts of the schematics nor the trunk with the prototype, as far as existing public records show.[citation needed]
Telefunken Station
This section requires expansion.
After Wardenclyffe, Tesla built the Telefunken Wireless on the South Shore of Long Island. Some of what he wanted to achieve at Wardenclyffe was achieved with the Telefunken Wireless. In West Sayville, Long Island, New York, Tesla assisted in the building of three 600-foot (180 m) radio towers, creating the western wireless communication station in a North America and Europe network.
Quotes
"As soon as [the Wardenclyffe facility is] completed, it will be possible for a business man in New York to dictate instructions, and have them instantly appear in type at his office in London or elsewhere. He will be able to call up, from his desk, and talk to any telephone subscriber on the globe, without any change whatever in the existing equipment. An inexpensive instrument, not bigger than a watch, will enable its bearer to hear anywhere, on sea or land, music or song, the speech of a political leader, the address of an eminent man of science, or the sermon of an eloquent clergyman, delivered in some other place, however distant. In the same manner any picture, character, drawing, or print can be transferred from one to another place ..." - Nikola Tesla, "The Future of the Wireless Art", Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, 1908, pg. 67-71.
"It is not a dream, it is a simple feat of scientific electrical engineering, only expensive blind, faint-hearted, doubting world! [...] Humanity is not yet sufficiently advanced to be willingly led by the discoverer's keen searching sense. But who knows? Perhaps it is better in this present world of ours that a revolutionary idea or invention instead of being helped and patted, be hampered and ill-treated in its adolescence by want of means, by selfish interest, pedantry, stupidity and ignorance; that it be attacked and stifled; that it pass through bitter trials and tribulations, through the strife of commercial existence. So do we get our light. So all that was great in the past was ridiculed, condemned, combatted, suppressed only to emerge all the more powerfully, all the more triumphantly from the struggle." Nikola Tesla (at the end of his dream for Wardenclyffe) [Wardenclyffe A Forfeited Dream]
Related patents
Nikola Tesla's patents
"Means for Generating Electric Currents," U.S. Patent 514,168, February 6, 1894
"Electrical Transformer," U.S. Patent 593,138, November 2, 1897
"Method Of Utilizing Radiant Energy," U.S. Patent 685,958 November 5, 1901
"Method of Signaling," U.S. Patent 723,188, March 17, 1903
"System of Signaling," U.S. Patent 725,605, April 14, 1903
"Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums," U.S. Patent 787,412, April 18, 1905
"Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy," January 18, 1902, U.S. Patent 1,119,732, December 1, 1914
See also: List of Tesla patents
Other patents
Hansell, U.S. Patent 2,389,432, Communication system by pulses through the Earth.
Leydorf, G. F., U.S. Patent 3,278,937, "Antenna near field coupling system". 1966.
See also
Electro-mechanical oscillator
Transceiver: transmitter and receiver
Devices: Tesla coil and Magnifying Transmitter
Notes
^ Anderson, Leland I., Nikola Tesla On His Work with Alternating Currents and Their Application to wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power, Twenty First Century Books, 2002, pp. 106, 153, 170.; Councel, "This Wardenclyffe station was that -- experimental?" Tesla, "No, it was a commercial undertaking. . . ."
^ "The Future of the Wireless Art," Wireless Telegraphy & Telephony, Van Nostrand, 1908
^ Cheney, Margaret(1999), Tesla Master of Lightning, New York: Barnes & Noble Books, ISBN 0-7607-1005-8, pp. 107.; nable to overcome his financial burdens, he was forced to close the laboratory in 1905.
^ a b c "A Battle to Preserve a Visionary Bold Failure". New York Times. May 4, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/science/05tesla.html?hp. Retrieved 2009-05-05. "Today, a fight is looming over the ghostly remains of that site, called Wardenclyffe what Tesla authorities call the only surviving workplace of the eccentric genius who dreamed countless big dreams while pioneering wireless communication and alternating current. The disagreement began recently after the property went up for sale in Shoreham, N.Y."
^ See http://earlyradiohistory.us/1917tes.htm (citing page 293 of the September, 1917 issue of The Electrical Experimenter): "SUSPECTING that German spies were using the big wireless tower erected at Shoreham, L. I., about twenty years ago by Nikola Tesla, the Federal Government ordered the tower destroyed and it was recently demolished with dynamite."
^ A Battle to Preserve a Visionary Bold Failure - New York Times - May 4, 2009
^ "Tesla Lab: $1,650,000". New York Times. May 4, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/05/science/05teslabox.html?ref=science. Retrieved 2009-05-05. "5 Randall Road, Shoreham, N.Y., between Tesla Court and Randall Road"
^ Email from Brookhaven Town Historian, Barbara Russell, Mon, 30 Mar 2009
^ Brookhaven Bulletin, Vol. 30 No. 27, July 16, 1976
^ This plaque is located near the entrance to the building, not the entrance to the site, and as such is not accessible by the public in any way.
^ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". http://assets.mediaspanonline.com/prod/3777889/168314_w407.jpg. Retrieved 2010-02-01.
^ "Valuable Plaque Stolen From Tesla Laboratory"
^ Tesla, a Little-Recognized Genius, Left Mark in Shoreham - New York Times - November 10, 2002
^ Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power, ISBN 1-893817-01-6, p. 203
^ "Experiments With Alternating Currents of Very High Frequency, and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination," AIEE, Columbia College, N.Y., May 20, 1891
^ xperiments With Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency," IEE Address, London, February 3, 1892 (Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla).
^ "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena," February 24, 1893, before the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, March 1893, before the National Electric Light Association, St. Louis.
^ Norrie, H. S., "Induction Coils: How to make, use, and repair them". Norman H. Schneider, 1907, New York. 4th edition.
^ Electrical experimenter, January 1919. pg. 615
^ Tesla: Man Out of Time By Margaret Cheney. Page 174
^ "The Transmission of Electrical Energy Without Wires," Electrical World, March 5, 1904
^ a b c d e f "Experiments With Alternating Currents of Very High Frequency, and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination," AIEE, Columbia College, N.Y., May 20, 1891
^ "Episode 126: Capacitance and the equation C =Q/V", Institute of Physics website > Schools and Colleges > Projects > Teaching Advanced Physics > Electricity > Capacitors, accessed 2008-09-25
^ As noted by James Corum, et al. in the paper "Concerning Cavity Q", Proceedings of the 1988 International Tesla Symposium. (ed. along with other sources)
^ "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena," February 24, 1893, before the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, March 1893, before the National Electric Light Association, St. Louis.
^ "The Future of the Wireless Art," Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, Walter W. Massie & Charles R. Underhill, 1908, pp. 67-71
^ Anderson, Leland, Nikola Tesla On His Work with Alternating Currents and Their Application to wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power, Twenty First Century Books, 2002, p. 170.
^ "U.S. Blows Up Tesla Radio Tower," Electrical Experimenter, September 1917, p. 293.
^ Peterson, Gary, "Rediscovering the Zenneck Surface Wave," Feed Line No. 4.
^ Anderson, Leland, Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, p. 203
^ U.S. Patent No. 787,412, April 18, 1905 and some of his Wardenclyffe design notes
^ Peterson, Gary, "Nikola Tesla's Wireless Work: The development of a ground-based system for wireless transmission"
^ Peterson, Gary, "Comparative Study of the Hertz, Marconi and Tesla Low-Frequency Wireless Systems"
^ Peterson, Gary, "Tesla Coils & the World System: Nikola Tesla's Engineering Legacy"
^ Peterson, Gary, "A Museum at Wardenclyffe: The Creation of a Monument to Nikola Tesla".
^ http://www.pbs.org/tesla/dis/papad.html
^ THE NEW ART OF PROJECTING CONCENTRATED NON-DISPERSIVE ENERGY THROUGH NATURAL MEDIA, System of Particle Acceleration for Use in National Defense
^ http://amasci.com/tesla/tmistk.html
^ http://www.earthbreathing.co.uk/sr.htm
^ Definition of "Hertzian"
^ Marc J. Seifer, Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla. Page 228.
^ Tesla, Nikola, "The True Wireless". Electrical Experimenter, May 1919. (Available at pbs.org)
^ U.S. Patent 645,576
^ U.S. Patent 725,605
^ a b U.S. Patent 685,957, Apparatus for the utilization of radiant energy, N. Tesla
^ U.S. Patent 685,958, Method of utilizing of radiant energy, N. Tesla
^ "Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy", Jan. 18, 1902, U.S. Patent 1,119,732, December 1, 1914 (available at U.S. Patent 1,119,732 and 21st Century Books' Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy)
^ Marc J. Seifer, Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla. Page 472. (cf. "Each tower could act as a sender or a receiver. In a letter to Katherine Johnson, Tesla explains the need for well over thirty such towers".)
^ U.S. Patent 0685956
^ U.S. Patent 0685955 Apparatus for Utilizing Effects Transmitted From A Distance To A Receiving Device Through Natural Media
^ G. L. Peterson, Rediscovering the Zenneck Surface Wave.
^ 'Energy-sucking' Radio Antennas, N. Tesla's Power Receiver.
^ William Beaty, "Tesla invented radio?". 1992.
^ Nikola Tesla's Contributions to Radio Developments. www.tesla-symp06.org.
^ A. H. Taylor, "Resonance in Arial Systems". American Physical Society. Physical review. New York, N.Y.: Published for the American Physical Society by the American Institute of Physics. (cf. The Tesla coil in the receiver acts as a step-down transformer, and hence the current is greater than in the aerial itself.)
^ This would include being able to be "shock excited" by all electrical phenomena of transverse waves (those with vibrations perpendicular to the direction of the propagation) and longitudinal waves (those with vibrations parallel to the direction of the propagation). Further information can be found in U.S. Patent 685,953, U.S. Patent 685,954, U.S. Patent 685,955, U.S. Patent 685,956, U.S. Patent 685,957 and U.S. Patent 685,958.
^ Marc J. Seifer, Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla. Page 221 (cf. "The inventor had tuned his equipment so carefully that n one instance the devices recorded effects of lightning discharges fully 500 miles away []"
^ Hermann Plauson, U.S. Patent 1,540,998, "Conversion of atmospheric electric energy". Jun. 1925.
^ Nikola Tesla, "Tuned Lightning", English Mechanic and World of Science, March 8, 1907.
^ U.S. Patent 685,958, Method of utilizing of radiant energy, N. Tesla
^ U.S. Patent 685,957 Apparatus for the utilization of radiant energy, N. Tesla
^ a b c U.S. Patent 0685953 Apparatus for Utilizing Effects Transmitted from a Distance to a Receiving Device through Natural Media
^ US685957 Utilization of Radiant Energy
^ a b U.S. Patent 0685954 Method of Utilizing Effects Transmitted through Natural Media
^ Bell, Louis (1901). Electric Power Transmission; a Practical Treatise for Practical Men. p. 10. http://books.google.com/books?id=hSYKAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA3-PA110&lpg=RA3-PA110&dq=%22electric+power+transmission+a+practical+treatise+for+practical+men%22&source=web&ots=FTKTW8smJm&sig=8kcwxaAWKmm5-1ysBFR52oQiRik#PRA1-PA10,M1. Retrieved 2007-02-15. "Both kinds of strains exist in radiant energy, [] The stresses in electro-magnetic energy are at right angles both to the electrostatic stresses and to the direction of their motion or flow."
^ U.S. Patent 0685953 "Apparatus for Utilizing Effects Transmitted from a Distance to a Receiving Device through Natural Media"
^ A. H. Taylor, "Resonance in Arial Systems". American Physical Society. Physical review. New York, N.Y.: Published for the American Physical Society by the American Institute of Physics. (cf. The Tesla coil in the receiver act as a step-down transformer, and hence the current is greater than in the aerial itself.)
Further reading
Anderson, Leland, "Rare Notes from Tesla on Wardenclyffe", in Electric Spacecraft - A journal of Interactive Research, Issue 26, September 14, 1998. Contains copies of rare documents from the Tesla Museum in Belgrade including Tesla's notes and sketches from 1901
Bass, Robert W., "Self-Sustained Non-Hertzian Longitudal Wave Oscillations as a Rigorous Solution of Maxwell's Equations for Electromagnetic Radiation". Inventek Enterprises, Inc., Las Vegas, Nevada.
"Boundless Space: A Bus Bar". The Electrical World, Vol 32, No. 19.
Massie, Walter Wentworth, "Wireless telegraphy and telephony popularly explained ". New York, Van Nostrand. 1908.
Rather, John, "Tesla, a Little-Recognized Genius, Left Mark in Shoreham". The New York Times. Long Island Weekly Desk.
Tesla, Nikola, "The Transmission of Electrical Energy Without Wires", Electrical World and Engineer, March 5, 1904.
Tesla, Nikola, "World System of Wireless Transmission of Energy", Telegraph and Telegraph Age, October 16, 1927.
External links
Facility details:Interior view (a) -- Interior view (b) -- Interior view (c) -- Facility front view --Facility side view -- Facility large front view -- Tower alone
Facilities assembled; Colorado Springs, Long Island, and Lac Edouard (near Sanford, Quebec).
PBS Tower of Dreams
The Tesla Wardenclyffe Project
Tesla's vision of the wireless global communications
Tesla Radio: A Wireless Telecommunications System for the Post Modern Age
Creation of a Monument to Nikola Tesla
The Real Science of "Non-Hertzian" Waves (ed. Reportedly focuses on Tesla's wireless energy transmission ideas; the main focus is on transverse wave, i.e. "Hertz waves". Plasma wave physics, longitudinal waves, and telluric currents not considered).
The Basic Tesla Transmitter Apparatus with Passive Receiver.
The Basic Dual-tower ("type two") Tesla Transmitter Configuration. A receiver is standing out to the right.
Simplified Schematic of the Dual-tower Earth Resonance Tesla Transmitter.
Cooper, John. F., "Modified Type 2 Magnifying Transmitter circuit diagram; alternate circuit diagram." Both designs are deemed to be unusable.
The Finalized Magnifying Transmitter Design of 1914, patented by Nikola Tesla.
Wardenclyffe Tower at Structurae
Bird's Eye view of the Wardenclyffe laboratory and power plant building as it exists today (from Live maps).
Wardenclyffe Tower video.
Utilization of Radiant Energy 1901 Nikola Tesla, My test, My setup 1, My setup 2, My setup 3, My test 2, My test 3, My test 4, My test 5, My test 6, My test 7, My test 8. youtube.com
Wardenclyffe Tower is at coordinates 405651 725354 / 40.94759700N 72.89820700W / 40.94759700; -72.89820700 (Wardenclyffe Tower)Coordinates: 405651 725354 / 40.94759700N 72.89820700W / 40.94759700; -72.89820700 (Wardenclyffe Tower)
Tesla's Wardenclyffe Science Center Plaque
Designated Superfun Site
Categories: Nikola Tesla | Towers in New York | 1901 architecture | Destroyed landmarksHidden categories: Articles with broken citations | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from September 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2007 | Articles to be expanded from May 2008 | All articles to be expanded
Combined driving
China Product
Classification
The FEI classification system denotes driving competitions as Concours d'Attelage (CA), which may be either National (CAN) or International (CAI). A National Event is limited to competitors of that nation, who shall take part according to the regulations of their National Federation. Foreign athletes may take part by invitation. An International Event must be organised under the FEI Statutes, General Regulations and Sport Rules, and may be open to competitors of all NFs. CAIs are primarily for individual Athletes. However, competitions for national teams of not more than four members may be organised.
There are two categories of international competitions - CAI-A and CAI-B. The CAI-A category denotes a higher level of organisation and facilities provided. 250cc motor scooter
Normally, it is assumed that a CA classified competition is for horses. If pony classes are involved, the letter P is added to the classification (e.g. CAIP-A). Numbers denote the arrangement of horses in the class (e.g. CAI-A 2 is a competition for horse pairs, whereas CAIP-B 1/2/4 is a Category B competition for ponies - singles, pairs and four-in-hand). kick scooter parts
World championships are denoted as Championnat du Monde Attelage (CH-M-A). There are three World Championships for horses - Singles, Pairs and Four-in-Hand. These are held every two years, with Single Horse (CH-M-A 1) and Four-in-Hand (CH-M-A 4) Championships in an even-numbered year and Horse Pairs (CH-M-A 2) every odd year. A World Combined Pony Championships (CH-M-AP, which include singles, pairs and four-in-hand) are held every odd-numbered year. pocket rocket parts
FEI World Cup Driving, is a series of competitions for four-in-hand horse teams. Introduced in 2001, it provides an exciting style of competition which takes place in an indoor arena. The course combines marathon and cone driving obstacles. Five or six drivers, each with a team of four horses take turns to drive the course against the clock. World Cup Driving events are classified as CAI-W and take place throughout the winter months (Nov to April).
Competitions for drivers with disabilities are classified as CPEAI (Paralymic Equestrian) and the championships (CH-M-PE-A) are held in every odd-numbered year.
At the National level (CAN) the sport is governed by each country's National Federation, sometimes through a governing body, which will have rules based on the FEI Rulebook, but maybe with some variations. Most countries hold their own National Championships.
Most people will start driving by joining a local organisation or club, who organise training sessions and one or two-day competitions. Keen drivers can qualify to take part in national events from which they may put themselves forward to be selected to represent their country at international competitions or World Championships. Because a driver always needs a groom (backstepper or navigator), it's possible to take part as such and to enjoy the competition as much as the driver (and horse).
Competition Phases
Phase A: Driven Dressage
Phase A is further sub-divided into two sections:
A1 is Presentation. For newcomer or novice classes, this is inspected and marked by a judge at a stand-still before the second part of the competition.
A2 is Driven Dressage. For more advanced classes, phase A1 is incorporated into the marking of phase A2 and is judged on the move as part of the driven dressage test.
Phase A1: Presentation
The judge grades on the turnout, safety, cleanliness, general condition and impression of the horses, tack, and vehicle, the matching of the horses or ponies, and the dress of the driver and groom(s). The judging is done at the halt. Pre-novice and novice drivers are judged primarily on safety and fit of the harness and vehicle and a three-phase or marathon vehicle and harness is acceptable. Presentation is judged on the move during the dressage test for more advanced drivers. Presentation carries a maximum of ten penalties.
Driver, Grooms and Passengers: All persons should be clean and smartly dressed. The livery of the grooms should fit and match if there is more than one groom. The whip should be the correct length, based on the number of horses used. The driver and groom(s) should wear brown gloves, as well as a driving hat and the driver wears an apron.
Horse(s): The horses should be clean and well-conditioned. If there are several horses, they should be of similar size and type (build), although the wheelers may be larger than the leaders. Matching color is secondary to matching type and size. Manes may or may not be braided, but should be level. Tails should not be braided.
Harness: Should be "sound, clean, and fit correctly". Harness, if more than one horse is used, should match, although different bits may be used. The overall harness should also match. Martingales other than false martingales are not permitted. Harness straps should not be buckled on the last hole, so that adjustment may be made should a piece of harness break.
Vehicle: carriage should be the correct size and weight for the horse, as should the height and length of the poles for pairs and fours. Lamps are required at the advanced level, but only required at the training, preliminary, and intermediate levels if the carriage has lamp brackets. A set of spares should be carried on the vehicle in case of emergency: a spare trace of the correct size, a rein splice, a hole punch and similar items are traditionally included. These may be inspected by the judge and the groom will be expected to know how to use them.
General impression: judged on dress and position of driver and grooms, and suitability of horses and harness to the carriage.
Phase A2: Dressage
George Bowman (GBR) in the dressage phase at Hopetoun National Horse Driving Trials (Edinburgh, Scotland) in May 2005
The dressage test is somewhat similar to dressage under saddle. The test is performed in a 40- by 80 or 40- by 100- meter arena with letter markers, where transitions in speed and gait are to take place. The judge scores each movement on a scale of 0-10, with a 10 being the highest mark possible. The difficulty of the test increases with each subsequent level of competition. At the lower levels, only one judge will normally be positioned at C (the centre of the short side of the arena) and the Test may have 16 movements. At higher levels, 3 judges may be used and at International competitions and World Championships there may be up to 5 judges, with the Championship Test having 25 movements. The judges' marks are averaged (added together and divided by the number of judges).
Dressage movements may include circles, figures of eight, and crossing the diagonal and all paces - walk, working trot, collected trot, extended trot, canter, a halt, and a rein back. Multiple horses are judged on ability to move in harmony and ideally will have similar conformation, action, and movement. Horses are to remain on the bit throughout the test, maintaining impulsion, elasticity, rhythm, and forward movement. The goal is to make the test look effortless, and an obedient and responsive horse is essential for a good dressage test.
Unlike a ridden dressage test, a driven test allows the use of the voice as an aid. At international level, dressage tests are prepared by the Fdration Equestre Internationale (F.E.I.) which is the governing body of competitive carriage driving.
Phase B: Marathon
HRH Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh exiting the water obstacle at Lowther HDT (Cumbria, Great Britain) in August 2005
Marathon: Edwin Bryson exiting the water obstacle at the BHDTA National Horse Driving Trials Championships 2006 at Windsor Great Park (GBR).
The marathon is similar to the second phase of eventing, the speed and endurance. It tests the fitness and stamina of the horses, as well as the driver's knowledge of pace, over a 1022 km course, divided into 3 or 5 sections. The marathon is the most thrilling phase to watch, and often draws the largest crowds.
Section "E" of the marathon is similar to the cross-country phase of eventing. It has obstacles or "hazards" throughout the course to test the speed and agility of the horses, and the driving ability of the whip. Obstacles may include water, tight twists through trees or man-made obstacles, steep hills, or fences and pens. Drivers are scored on how quickly they can negotiate the obstacle, and must find the fastest route through each. Penalty points are given if too much time is spent in an obstacle, or if the team comes in off the optimum time for the whole course.
The Marathon sections
The marathon phase has three sections in international competition. Sections A and E are may be driven at any pace, but normally will be at a trot. Section D is a walk section and the horses must maintain that pace throughout the whole section. Some National competitions may have up to five sections, two driven at a trot, two at walk and one fast trot section. The marathon is not a race for speed. Each section has a maximum AND a minimum time allowed, giving a 2 or a 3 minute "window". If a competitor finishes outside this window(depending on which section is being driven), penalty points will be awarded. A competitor may also receive penalty points for not driving a section at the required pace.
Throughout the marathon and in the obstacles the groom can speak to the driver and assist using his or her weight and balance to keep the carriage upright or to bounce it off the obstacle uprights. The groom also helps to keep the correct pace by checking the kilometre markers on the course against calculated timings for each section, allowing for ground conditions and the horse's fitness.
Below are the five sections and their maximum lengths and speeds, as specified in the FEI rulebook:
Section
Max. distance
Pace
Speed
A
8000 m
Any pace
15 km/h
D
1000 m
Walk
7 km/h
E
9000 m
Any pace
14 km/h
Section E includes up to eight obstacles, to be driven in sequence. The last designated 300 to 500 m must be driven at walk or trot, with no stopping for any reason.
A time window - a minimum and a maximum time - is calculated for each section according to the length of the section, the average speed of the carriage and whether it is pulled by horses or ponies. After the walk section there is a ten-minute halt, where the horses can be cooled and watered. A veterinary check may follow section D to ensure that the horses are fit to continue.
At club events, the rules may often be relaxed somewhat with, for instance, a "short marathon" which usually means only section E and (some of) the obstacles are driven. This is usually a class designed to encourage drivers of small ponies and young ponies and horses or for inexperienced and junior drivers. It enables newcomers to gain experience and confidence.
Marathon Obstacles
Harrie Verstappen (NED), negotiates an obstacle decorated with inflatable sculptures at the World Horse Pairs Championships, Warka, Poland, 01 September, 2007
Marathon obstacles, sometimes known as hazards, frequently take advantage of natural features, being sited around trees and on slopes, but are typically solidly-built sections of posts and rails. National events have decorated and/or brightly painted obstacles which are more exciting to the eye, however many clubs have venues where the obstacles are permanent and these are more likely to be imaginatively dressed than sites where the obstacles are built specially for each event.
Driving any horse or pony and carriage around an obstacle at speed requires practice and a rapport between driver, animal(s) and groom(s). Timing starts as the horse's nose crosses the start line and ends when his nose crosses the finish line, frequently the same markers.
Phase C: Obstacle Cone Driving
The cones phase by ponies harnessed in tandem.
A ball is dislodged from the top of a cone at high speed by British driver Pippa Bassett at the Lowther National Horse Driving Trials (GBR) in 2007.
The obstacle cone driving phase is a test of accuracy, speed and obedience, equivalent to the show jumping phase of eventing. Competitors walk the cones course before they drive it. The driver negotiates a course of up to 20 pairs of cones, each cone having a ball balanced on top. The cones are only a few centimeters wider than the wheels of the carriage, depending on the level of the class and the type of turnout (from 50 cm at the lower levels, to only 22 cm at the advanced singles level). Knocking over one or both of a pair of cones adds three penalties to the driver's score. The course may also include obstacles made of raised rails in a U or right angle, and a wooden bridge. The cones section is timed and going over the time set for the driver's class leads to penalties. Circling before an obstacle and refusals are also awarded penalty points.
The levels and divisions of combined driving
International driving competitions, which fall under FEI rules, are divided into the following categories or classes, which reflect the number and arrangement of horses:
Single horse - only one animal is used to pull the carriage.
Pair of horses - two animals are harnessed to the carriage, side by side.
Four-in-Hand (sometimes known as a "team") - four horses, one pair being in front of the other pair.
The competitions are further divided into horses and ponies, according to the size of the animals. Driving Ponies must not exceed 148 cm. All animals over this height are classified as Horses.
There are some competitions (usually not international) which may use other arrangements, e.g.:
Tandem - one horse or pony in front of the other
Randem - three horses in-line, one in the front, one in the middle and one at the rear
Unicorn - two horses at the back, one at the front
Pickaxe - one horse at the back, two at the front
Troika - three horses side-by-side
At National and Club level, further division is made according to the ability and experience of the driver.
In the United States, the levels of combined driving are similar to that of eventing:
Training
Preliminary
Intermediate
Advanced
In the UK, where the sport is known as Horse Driving Trials, the levels of progression from Club to National competition are:
Pre-novice
Novice
Intermediate
Open
Advanced
The driver qualifies for the class usually by successfully competing in a lower class for a set period of time or a number of wins. Most people start driving with a single pony or horse and these can range from 80 cm (32 in) to 170 cm (17hh). Many clubs run special classes for the smallest ponies.
Competitors and equipment
People
Driver: The person who controls the horses and carriage through the use of the reins, whip and voice. The driver may speak to the horses at any time without penalty.
Groom: The groom is indispensable to the driver who, for reasons of safety, must stay on the carriage to hold the reins and control the horses while they are hitched or put to the carriage. The groom sits on the carriage either beside or behind the driver for the dressage and cones phases and may stand on the back of the carriage for the marathon (and may stand in all phases in indoor driving trials). The groom, who must be able-boldied, helps the driver to hitch or put the horse to the carriage - and helps unhitch - can jump off the carriage to adjust the harness or to correct a problem if required to do so by the driver (although doing this while actually in the competition arena or in an obstacle is penalised). When the competitor is performing dressage and in the obstacle cones driving phases, the groom may not speak or assist the driver except in very specific circumstances. Normally all types of turnout carry one groom except four-in-hands which have two.
Navigator: Navigating the course and obstacle routes on the marathon phase is an important part of the groom's job and usually, on a four-in-hand carriage, the navigator stands on the carriage immediately behind the driver and a second groom stands behind the navigator and has the task of keeping the carriage upright. The navigator reminds the driver where to go and usually keeps the time with a stopwatch or two: during the marathon phase and in the obstacles the grooms can speak and signal to the driver. A single groom combines navigating routes with timing and keeping the carriage balanced. The step or steps on the carriage behind the driver are called the backstep and the grooms are also called backsteppers.
Although there is a seat next to the driver on some marathon carriages - called the suicide seat - this is not generally used except in training or to thrill a sponsor.
Horses
The horse or pony may be of any breed, although warmbloods are often seen at the highest levels of competition. Morgans are also popular. The horse must be responsive, have a good mind, and be reliable. If multiple horses are used, they should be of similar height, build, and movement, and preferably similar color. When using multiple horses, it is important to choose the most suitable horse as a "wheeler" or "leader". Leaders are often flashier and have greater presence than wheelers.
Ponies are popular driving animals in the UK and Welsh ponies and cobs have a special aptitude, intelligence and presence in all driving disciplines. Hackney horses and part-breds are popular, too, as their extravagant action combined with athleticism and stamina enables them to star in every phase of the competition.
Carriages
Main article: Carriage
For the presentation and dressage phase, carriages and harness are often leather, built along traditional lines, and designed for attractive appearance. The Spider phaeton is one of the more commonly used types of carriage for dressage. Competitors may use either 2-wheeled or 4-wheeled vehicles, but 4-wheelers are most often used in modern competition. Many competitors have a second carriage for the marathon phase. Most marathon vehicles are of a modern design, tailor made for competition. They are manufactured from steel, aluminium or other alloys and may have hydraulic disc brakes on front and rear wheels, low centre of gravity and very small turning circle. A tougher harness is also used in the marathon phase, often made from synthetic materials rather than the traditional leather.
"Three-phase" carriages are popular, especially at entry levels, as drivers need only one vehicle. These carriages have extending axles to make the rear wheels the required width for the dressage and cones phases (currently 138 cm minimum for all pony and for single and tandem horse classes). All carriages for the marathon phase are 125 cms minimum track width, measured on the ground and on the rear wheels. For Indoor driving trials, carriages should be a minimum of 125 cm for all phases.
Indoor driving
FEI World Cup
Indoor Driving: Benjamin Aillaud (FRA) at the FEI World Cup Driving Final in Leipzig, 2008.
In 2001 the FEI introduced a new World Cup series, along side World Cup Jumping and World Cup Dressage. Called The FEI World Cup Driving, it is a series of competitions for four-in-hand drivers, that provides an innovative and exciting style of competition in an indoor arena. These take place at venues throughout Europe, alongside other World Cup competitions, during the months of October to March.
Drivers qualify to take part in the World Cup at a number of designated qualifying outdoor events during the preceding summer season. The top ten drivers in the qualifying table go forward to compete in the World Cup. There are 6 or 7 events in the World Cup series, plus a Final. Of the 10 qualified drivers, 5 compete in each event. In addition, the home nation which is staging the event may nominate up to 3 "wildcard" drivers to take part. Two rounds are driven in each World Cup competition, usually on subsequent days. The warm-up round is first and the placing of drivers after this round determines the starting order for the World Cup competition proper.
The World Cup Driving course combines elements from marathon obstacles and cones driving phases of outdoor driving competitions. Two obstacles are built, one at each end of the arena, with a number of cones between them. These all have to be driven in the correct sequence and at the fastest possible speed, without dislodging any of the knock-down elements. The course will also include a "bridge".
Drivers are awarded points according to their placings in each round. After the 6 or 7 World Cup competitions, the five highest placed drivers go forward to the Final. At the Final, all drivers start from scratch. The top 3 drivers after the first round will then have a drive off over the same course, with their scores carried forward into the drive off.
Indoor Driving Trials
Indoor driving rules in the UK allow the groom to stand on the backstep for all phases
In 1998 a group of enthusiasts in Sussex, England, started a series of winter one-day competitions, based on the three phases of driving trials, but modified to take place in an indoor arena.
Starting with the dressage in a marked dressage arena of only 20 by 50 metres, the drivers perform the a dressage test called Precision and Paces (P&P). This takes five minutes to drive and is marked by two judges, one judging only the paces and one judging the precision and accuracy of the figures. Each judge has a scorer close by who holds up the judge's mark for each of the ten movements in the test so the event scorer (and audience) can see it.
After P&P, the arena is cleared and a cones course of ten pairs of cones is set out. Everyone walks the course and an optimum time is set, based on the length of the course and a speed of 220m/minute. Going faster or slower than this means the driver is awarded penalties for each second: knocking a ball down adds a further five penalties.
After the cones phase, two obstacles are built in the arena and the drivers and grooms walk them, choosing the best route for their turnout. The drivers come back into the arena one-at-a-time in their class, in reverse order of their score placing - best goes last - and drive the two obstacles as fast as possible. Then they drive them a second time. The drivers with the lowest score in their class are the winners.
Although they were originally thought to be the poor relation of driving trials, indoor events are bringing more people into the sport and provide a training ground for more serious competitors and their inexperienced horses and ponies. Audiences love the variety of the horses and ponies - from 34-inch (860 mm) miniature Shetland ponies to 16.2 hand Gelderlanders, they all drive the same courses and are only feet away from the spectators.
World Champions
FEI World Cup Driving
Year
1st
2nd
3rd
2008-9
Boyd Exell (AUS)
Ysbrand Chardon (NED)
Koos de Ronde (NED)
2007-8
Christoph Sandmann (GER)
Benjamin Aillaud (FRA)
Ysbrand Chardon (NED)
2006-7
Michael Freund (GER)
Ysbrand Chardon (NED)
Christoph Sandmann (GER)
2005-6
Ysbrand Chardon (NED)
Michael Freund (GER)
Werner Ulrich (SUI)
2004-5
Ysbrand Chardon (NED)
Michael Freund (GER)
Werner Ulrich (SUI)
2003-4
Michael Freund (GER)
Boyd Exell (AUS)
Christoph Sandmann (GER)
2002-3
Michael Freund (GER)
Boyd Exell (AUS)
Christoph Sandmann (GER)
2001-2
Michael Freund (GER)
Chester Weber (USA)
Christoph Sandmann (GER)
World Singles Championships
Year
Place
1st
2nd
3rd
1st Individual
2nd Individual
3rd Individual
2008
Jarantow (POL)
FRA
GER
SUI
Jan van den Broek (NED)
Ann-Violaine Brisou (FRA)
Jan Moonen (NED)
2006
Pratoni del Vivaro (ITA)
GBR
SWE
GER
Paul Sidwell (GBR)
Cecilia Qvarnstrom (SWE)
Dieter Lauterbach (GER)
2004
storp (SWE)
SWE
FIN
POL
Marie Kahrle (SWE)
Jan van den Broek (NED)
Ben Simonsen (FIN)
2002
Conty (FRA)
SWE
FIN
AUT
Stphane Chouzenoux (FRA)
Marie Kahrle (SWE)
Fred Merriam (USA)
2000
Gladstone, NJ (USA)
1998
Fohlenhof-Ebbs (AUT)
SWE
USA
NED
Arja Mikkonen (FIN)
Cecilia Qvarnstrom (SWE)
Rudolf Pirhofer (AUT)
2000 World Singles Championships cancelled due to West Nile virus outbreak
World Pairs Championships
Year
Place
1st
2nd
3rd
1st Individual
2nd Individual
3rd Individual
2009
Kecskemet (HUN)
NED
HUN
GER
Harrie Verstappen (NED)
Beat Schenk (SUI)
Zoltn Lazr (HUN)
2007
Warka (POL)
GER
HUN
NED
Vilmos Lazar (HUN)
Sebastian Warneck (GER)
Karoly Hodi (HUN)
World Four-in-Hand Championships
Year
Place
1st
2nd
3rd
1st Individual
2nd Individual
3rd Individual
2008
Beesd (NED)
NED
GER
HUN
World Combined Pony Championships
Year
Place
1st
2nd
3rd
1st Singles
1st Pairs
1st Fours
2009
Greven-Bockholt (GER)
GER
NED
BEL
Melanie Becker (NED)
Daniel Schneiders (GER)
Tobias Bcker (GER)
External links
Fdration Equestre Internationale (FEI)
FEI World Cup driving
American Driving Society
British Horse Driving Trials Association
Australian Carriage Driving Society
Australian Carriage Driving Society - Victoria Branch
References
^ http://www.fei.org/Disciplines/Driving/About_Driving/Pages/What_Is_Driving.aspx FEI
^ http://www.fei.org/Rules/Documents/General%20Regulations%2023rd%20edition%20-1%20January%202009%20-%20final.pdf
^ http://www.feiworldcup.org/Driving/Pages/Default.aspx
^ www.fei.org Combined driving tests
^ http://www.horsedrivingtrials.co.uk
^ http://www.fei.org/Disciplines/Driving/About_Driving/Documents/A-World%20Cup.pdf
^ http://www.hoefnet.nl/en/home/site/uitslagen
^ http://www.fei.org/Disciplines/Driving/About_Driving/Documents/World-Champ-Singles.pdf
^ http://www.fei.org/Disciplines/Driving/Results/Pages/Championships_Results.aspx
Indoor Horse Driving Trials Club UK
Categories: Horse driving | Equestrianism
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