Agaritine

China Product


Occurrence

Agaritine can be found in several mushroom species. Studies have found significant (>1000 mg/kg) agaritine levels in fresh samples of over 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. Mushrooms of these species are found around the world. They typically fruit from late spring through autumn, and are particularly prevalent in association with feces. These mushrooms grow in a wide range of habitats; indeed, one species alone, Agaricus bisporus, is cultivated in over 70 countries and on every continent except Antarctica. A. bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is of particular socio-economic importance because of both its prevalence in traditional cultural recipes and its booming cultivation industry in modernized countries.

The agaritine content varies between individual mushrooms and across species. Agaritine content (% fresh weight) in raw Agaricus bisporus, for example, ranges from 0.033% to 0.173%, with an average of 0.088%. The highest amount of agaritine is found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body, and the lowest in the stem. Agaritine oxidizes rapidly upon storage, however, and is totally degraded after 48 hours in aqueous solution with exposure to air. It has also been shown to decompose readily upon cooking (up to 90% reduction) as well as upon freezing (up to 75% reduction). ground flax seed

Biological Activity organic matresses

Agaritine has been shown to induce adenomas and adenocarcinomas in the lungs of mice when administered through drinking water. It has also been shown to mutagenize DNA in the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. Upon mammalian ingestion, agaritine is metabolized into its highly reactive diazonium ion. This bioactivation is performed in two steps: it is first acted upon by a -glutamyltransferase (GGT) to produce 2 and then by a cytochrome P450-dependent monooxyengase to reach the diazonium ion 3 (Figure 1). gamma oryzanol

Figure 1. The bioactivation of agaritine to its diazonium ion.

The mutagenic activity of the diazonium ion is due to its reaction with oxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide, which then covalently modifies DNA through a radical mechanism. Agaritine itself has also been shown to covalently bind to DNA in vivo. Agaritine is a weak carcinogen, however, and estimates for cumulative lifetime risk from mushroom consumption are approximately 1 in 10,000. There is little data about toxicity and there is no published LD50.

Extracts of mushrooms from the genus Agaricus have been used for generations as traditional Chinese herbal remedies. Some of these extracts have been shown to possess antiviral properties, and investigators have identified agaritine as a prominent compound in the extracts. This led researchers to investigate potential antiviral properties of agaritine, and recently docking assays have shown the molecule to be a potent inhibitor of HIV protease. Computer modelling research is currently being conducted in an attempt to optimize binding for potential use as an anti-HIV drug.

Biosynthesis

Agaritine (1) was long thought by biologists to emanate from shikimate (4), with the glutamate moiety clearly originating from glutamic acid. This assumption was made purely by inference: a similar compound, -glutaminyl-4-hydroxybenzene (5) is produced in the fruiting body of mushrooms in the genus Agaricus with similar abundance to agaritine and has been shown to be derived from the shikimate biosynthetic pathway. Recent work, however, has uncovered several problems with this hypothesis, of which inconsistencies in radiolabeling experiments are most notable. These recent efforts now assert that the molecule is synthesized in the vegetative mycelium and then translocated into the fruiting body. These researchers posit that the p-hydroxybenzoic acid moiety (6) is absorbed directly from the lignin on which the fungus feeds, not produced by the fungus itself (Figure 2). Despite recent work, however, experts still acknowledge the nebulous origin of the hydrazine functionality. Two theoretical mechanisms are postulated: oxidative coupling of two amines via a phenolic radical mechanism or fixation of nitrogen via nitrogenase.

Figure 2. Proposed biosynthesis of agaritine.

Synthesis

Three total syntheses of agaritine have been completed. The first was performed in 1962 by R.B. Kelly et al. (Figure 3). These researchers used as their key step the coupling of the -azide of N-carbobenzoxy-L-glutamic acid (9) with - hydroxy-p-tolylhydrazine (8). But compound 8 proved difficult to produce, presumably because of the ease with which water can eliminate across the benzene ring. This was finally overcome by in situ formation by reduction of p-carboxymethylphenylhydrazine (7) with lithium aluminium hydride, followed by a pH-neutral workup using a small quantity of saturated sodium chloride as a drying agent. Neutral conditions were required because agaritine is sensitive to both acid and base. No satisfactory method was found to isolate and purify 8 from its side products, so this solution was treated directly with 9. This produced a mixture of compounds, one of which was the adduct 10. After deprotection by hydrogenolysis, agaritine was extracted by chromatography. The overall yield was 6%, of which half was isolated in pure crystalline form.

Figure 3. Kelley et al. synthesis of agaritine (1962).

This synthesis could clearly be improved, and in 1979 L. Wallcave et al. published a modified synthesis (Figure 4). These investigators began with a slightly different starting material, the diprotected hydrazine of L-glutamic acid (11) and reacted it with p-carboxyphenylhydrazine (12) to produce the N-hydrazide (13). The limiting step in the first synthesis was the very imprecise reduction with LAH, which proceeded with several side reactions and little reaction specificity. Wallcave et al. instead used diborane to selectively reduce the carboxylic acid and reach compound 14, with some over-reduction to 15. The benzyl ester protecting groups were then cleaved by final hydrogenolysis. This last step was initially performed in aqueous solution, but the over-reduction product 15 carried on to produce a 15% side product impurity. This impurity was reduced to less than 2% when the solvent was changed from water to tetrahydrofuran, as the agaritine precipitated out of solution as it formed. The overall yield for this synthesis was 25%.

Figure 4. Wallcave et al. synthesis of agaritine (1979).

This was still unsatisfactory, however, and in 1987 S. Datta and L. Hoesch devised the third and most recent synthesis of agaritine (partially upon claims that the synthesis by Wallcave et al. could not be reproduced). The Datta and Hoesch synthesis (Figure 5) also used the joining of p-hydrazinobenzyl alcohol (8) with the 5-carboxy group of L-glutamic acid as its keystone, in the same vein as the initial Kelly synthesis. Unlike Kelly et al., however, these researchers achieved an efficient synthesis of 8 from 7 by using an even milder reducing agent than the diborane used by Wallcave et al. diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBALH) in toluene at -70C. Additionally, compound 8 was found to be much more stable than Kelly et al. had asserted. Mixture of 8 with the same diprotected L-glutamic acid 11 used by Wallcave et al. produced the already-reduced adduct (16). Subsequent deprotection via hydrogenolysis using a 10% poisoned Pd/C catalyst (to minimize the over-reduced side product encountered by Wallcave et al.) yielded agaritine. The final step had 83% yield, and the overall yield for this synthesis was 33%.

Figure 5. Datta and Hoesch synthesis of agaritine (1987).

See also

Agaritine gamma-glutamyltransferase

Genotoxicity

Gyromitrin

Monomethylhydrazine

References

^ a b Gao, W.-N.; Wei, D.-Q.; Li, Y.; Gao, H.; Xu, W.-R.; Li, A.-X.; Chou, K.-C. Agaritine and its derivatives are potential inhibitors against HIV proteases. J. Med. Chem. 2007, 3, 221-226.

^ Hashida C, Hayashi K, Jie L, Haga S, Sakurai M, Shimizu H (June 1990). "Quantities of agaritine in mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) and the carcinogenicity of mushroom methanol extracts on the mouse bladder epithelium". Nippon Koshu Eisei Zasshi 37 (6): 400405. PMID 2132000. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2132000. 

^ a b c Schulzov, V.; Hajslova, J.; Peroutka, R.; Hlavasek, J.; Gry, J.; Andersson, H. C. Agaritine content of 53 Agaricus species collected from nature. Food Addit. Contam. 2009, 26, 82-93.

^ Nagadka MH, Nagaoka H, Kondo K, Akiyama H, Maitani T (2006). "Measurement of a genotoxic hydrazine, agaritine, and its derivatives by HPLC with fluorescence derivatization in the Agaricus mushroom and its products". Chemical and pharmaceutical bulletin 54 (6): 922924. doi:10.1248/cpb.54.922. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17950755. 

^ Rinaldi, A.; Tyndalo, V.; Maggiora, L. R. The complete book of mushrooms : over 1,000 species and varieties of American, European, and Asiatic mushrooms. Crown Publishers: 1974.

^ a b Hayes, W. A.; Chang, S. T. The Biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms. Academic Press: 1978.

^ Liu, J.-W.; Beelman, R. B.; Lineback, D. R.; Speroni, J. J. Agaritine Content of Fresh and Processed Mushrooms Agaricus bisporus. J. Food Sci. 1982, 47, 1542-1544.

^ Ross, A. E.; Nagel, D. L.; Toth, B. Occurrence, stability and decomposition of -N[-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine (agaritine) from the mushroom Agaricus bisporus. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1982, 20, 903-907.

^ Hajlov, J.; Hjkov, L.; Schulzov, V.; Frandsen, H.; Gry, J.; Andersson, H. C. Stability of agaritine a natural toxicant of Agaricus mushrooms. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 1028-1033.

^ Schulzov, V.; Hajlov, J.; Peroutka, R.; Gry, J.; Andersson, H. C. Influence of storage and household processing on the agaritine content of the cultivated Agaricus mushroom. Food Addit. Contam. 2002, 19, 853-862.

^ Toth, B.; Nagel, D.; Patil, K.; Erickson, J.; Antonson, K. Tumor Induction with the N'-Acetyl Derivative of 4-Hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine, a Metabolite of Agaritine of Agaricus bisporus. Cancer Res. 1978, 38, 177-180.

^ Rogan, E. G.; Walker, B. A.; Gingell, R.; Nagel, D. L.; Toth, B. Microbial mutagenicity of selected hydrazines. Mutat. Res. 1982, 102, 413-424.

^ Kondo, K.; Watanabe, A.; Akiyama, H.; Maitani, T. The metabolisms of agaritine, a mushroom hydrazine in mice. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 854-862.

^ a b Walton, K.; Coombs, M. M.; Catterall, F. S.; Walker, R.; Ioannides, C. Bioactivation of the mushroom hydrazine, agaritine, to intermediates that bind covalently to proteins and induce mutations in the Ames test. Carcinogenesis 1997, 18, 1603-1608.

^ Freese, E.; Sklarow, S.; Freese, E. B. DNA damage caused by antidepressant hydrazines and related drugs. Mut. Res. 1968, 5, 343-348.

^ Shepard, S. E.; Schlatter, C. Covalent binding of agaritine to DNA in vivo. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1998, 36, 971-974.

^ Shephard, S. E.; Gunz, D.; Schlatter, C. Genotoxicity of agaritine in the lacI transgenic mouse mutation assay: evaluation of the health risk of mushroom consumption. Food Chem. Toxicol. 1995, 33, 257-264.

^ Toth, B.; Raha, C. R.; Wallcave, L.; Nagel, D. Attempted tumor induction with agaritine in mice. Anticancer Res. 1981, 1, 255-258.

^ a b Wang, J.-F.; Wei, D.-Q.; Chou, K.-C. Drug Candidates from Traditional Chinese Medicines. Curr. Top. in Med. Chem. 2008, 8, 1656-1665.

^ Sorimachi, K.; Koge, T. Agaricus blazei Water Extracts as Alternative Medicines. Curr. Pharm. Anal. 2008, 4, 39-43.

^ Stssi, H.; Rast, D. M. The biosynthesis and possible function of -glutaminyl-4-hydroxybenzene in Agaricus bisporus. Phytochemistry 1981, 20, 2347-2352.

^ a b c Baumgartner, D.; Hoeschand, L.; Rast, D. M. The Biogenesis of -N-( -Glutamyl)-4-Hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine (Agaritine) in Agaricus Bisporus in Honour of Professor G. H. Neil Towers 75th Birthday. Phytochemistry 1998, 49, 465-474.

^ Bollag, J.-M.; Myers, C. J.; Minard, R. D. Biological and chemical interactions of pesticides with soil organic matter. Sci. Tot. Envir. 1992, 123-124, 205-217.

^ Kim, J.; Rees, D. C. Nitrogenase and biological nitrogen fixation. Biochemistry 1994, 33, 389-397.

^ a b c Kelly, R. B.; Daniels, E. G.; Hinman, J. W. Agaritine: Isolation, Degradation, and Synthesis. J. Org. Chem. 1962, 27, 3229-3231.

^ a b c Wallcave, L.; Nagel, D. L.; Raha, C. R.; Jae, H.-S.; Bronczyk, S.; Kupper, R.; Toth, B. An improved synthesis of agaritine. J. Org. Chem. 1979, 44, 3752-3755.

^ a b c Datta, S.; Hoesch, L. Novel synthesis of agaritine, a 4-hydrazinobenzyl alcohol derivative occurring in Agaricaceae. Helv. Chim. Acta 1987, 70, 1261-1267.

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Hydrazines

4-PTSC Acylhydrazine ADH Adjudin Agaritine Benmoxin Cadralazine Carbazide Carbazone Carbidopa Carbohydrazide Daminozide Dihydralazine DNPH Endralazine Gyromitrin HBT Hydralazine Hydrazide Hydrazine Hydrazone IDH Iproclozide Iproniazid Isocarboxazid Isoniazid Mebanazine Metfendrazine MMH Nialamide Octamoxin PEH Phenelzine Pheniprazine Phenoxypropazine Phenylhydrazine Pimagedine Pivalylbenzhydrazine Procarbazine Safrazine SDH Semicarbazide Semicarbazone SDMH Tetrafluorohydrazine Thiosemicarbazide Thiosemicarbazone UDMH

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v  d  e

Categories: Pharmacology stubs | Mycotoxins | Hydrazines

Oseltamivir total synthesis

China Product


Commercial production

The current production method is based on research by Gilead Sciences starting from naturally occurring quinic acid and that of Hoffmann-La Roche starting from shikimic acid.

Karpf / Trussardi synthesis caproic acid

The current production method includes two reaction steps with potentially hazardous azides. A reported azide-free Roche synthesis of tamiflu is summarised graphically below : benzene sulfonic acid

The synthesis commences from naturally available ()-shikimic acid. The 3,4-pentylidene acetal mesylate is prepared in three steps: esterification with ethanol and thionyl chloride; ketalization with p-toluenesulfonic acid and 3-pentanone; and mesylation with triethylamine and methanesulfonyl chloride. Reductive opening of the ketal under modified Hunter conditions in dichloromethane yields an inseparable mixture of isomeric mesylates. The corresponding epoxide is formed under basic conditions with potassium bicarbonate. Using the inexpensive Lewis acid magnesium bromide diethyl etherate (commonly prepared fresh by the addition of magnesium turnings to 1,2-dibromoethane in benzene:diethyl ether), the epoxide is opened with allyl amine to yield the corresponding 1,2-amino alcohol. The water-immiscible solvents methyl tert-butyl ether and acetonitrile are used to simplify the workup procedure, which involved stirring with 1 M aqueous ammonium sulfate. Reduction on palladium, promoted by ethanolamine, followed by acidic workup yielded the deprotected 1,2-aminoalcohol. The aminoalcohol was converted directly to the corresponding allyl-diamine in an interesting cascade sequence that commences with the unselective imination of benzaldehyde with azeotropic water removal in methyl tert-butyl ether. Mesylation, followed by removal of the solid byproduct triethylamine hydrochloride, results in an intermediate that was poised to undergo aziridination upon transimination with another equivalent of allylamine. With the librated methanesulfonic acid, the aziridine opens cleanly to yield a diamine that immediately undergoes a second transimination. Acidic hydrolysis then removed the imine. Selective acylation with acetic anhydride (under buffered conditions, the 5-amino group is protonated owing to a considerable difference in pKa, 4.2 vs 7.9, preventing acetylation) yields the desired N-acetylated product in crystalline form upon extractive workup. Finally, deallylation as above, yielded the freebase of oseltamivir, which was converted to the desired oseltamivir phosphate by treatment with phosphoric acid. The final product is obtained in high purity (99.7%) and an overall yield of 17-22% from ()-shikimic acid. It is noted that the synthesis avoids the use of potentially explosive azide reagents and intermediates; however, the synthesis actually used by Roche uses azides. Roche has other routes to oseltamivir that do not involve the use of ()-shikimic acid as a chiral pool starting material, such as a Diels-Alder route involving furan and ethyl acrylate or an isophthalic acid route, which involves catalytic hydrogenation and enzymatic desymmetrization. humic acid

Corey synthesis

In 2006 the group of E.J. Corey published a novel route bypassing shikimic acid starting from butadiene and acrylic acid . The inventors chose not to patent this procedure which is described below.

Butadiene 1 reacts in an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction with the esterfication product of acrylic acid and 2,2,2-Trifluoroethanol 2 catalysed by the CBS catalyst. The ester 3 is converted into an amide in 4 by reaction with ammonia and the next step to lactam 5 is an iodolactamization with iodine initiated by trimethylsilyltriflate. The amide group is fitted with a BOC protective group by reaction with Boc anhydride in 6 and the iodine substituent is removed in an elimination reaction with DBU to the alkene 7. Bromine is introduced in 8 by an allylic bromination with NBS and the amide group is cleaved with ethanol and caesium carbonate accompanied by elimination of bromide to the diene ethyl ester 9. The newly formed double bond is functionalized with N-bromoacetamide 10 catalyzed with Tin(IV) bromide with complete control of stereochemistry. In the next step the bromine atom in 11 is displaced by the nitrogen atom in the amide group with the strong base KHMDS to the aziridine 12 which in turn is opened by reaction with 3-pentanol 13 to the ether 14. In the final step the BOC group is removed with phosphoric acid and the oseltamivir phosphate 15 is formed.

Shibasaki synthesis

Also in 2006 the group of Masakatsu Shibasaki of the University of Tokyo published a synthesis again bypassing shikimic acid .

Shibasaki Tamiflu synthesis Part I

Part II

An improved method published in 2007 starts with the enantioselective desymmetrization of aziridine 1 with trimethylsilyl azide (TMSN3) and a chiral catalyst to the azide 2. The amide group is protected as a BOC group with Boc anhydride and DMAP in 3 and iodolactamization with iodine and potassium carbonate first gives the unstable intermediate 4 and then stable cyclic carbamate 5 after elimination of hydrogen iodide with DBU.

The amide group is reprotected as BOC 6 and the azide group converted to the amide 7 by reductive acylation with thioacetic acid and 2,6-lutidine. Caesium carbonate accomplishes the hydrolysis of the carbamate group to the alcohol 8 which is subsequently oxidized to ketone 9 with Dess-Martin periodinane. Cyanophosphorylation with diethyl phosphorocyanidate (DEPC) modifies the ketone group to the cyanophosphate 10 paving the way for an intramolecular allylic rearrangement to unstable -allyl phosphate 11 (toluene, sealed tube) which is hydrolyzed to alcohol 12 with ammonium chloride. This hydroxyl group has the wrong stereochemistry and is therefore inverted in a Mitsunobu reaction with p-nitrobenzoic acid followed by hydrolysis of the p-nitrobenzoate to 13.

A second Mitsunobu reaction then forms the aziridine 14 available for ring-opening reaction with 3-pentanol catalyzed by boron trifluoride to ether 15. In the final step the BOC group is removed (HCl) and phosphoric acid added to objective 16.

Fukuyama synthesis

An approach published in 2007 like Corey's starts by an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction this time with starting materials pyridine and acrolein.

Fukuyama Tamiflu synthesis Part I

Part II

Pyridine (1) is reduced with sodium borohydride in presence of benzyl chloroformate to the Bcz protected dihydropyridine 2. The asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction with acrolein 3 is carried out with the McMillan catalyst to the aldehyde 4 as the endo isomer which is oxidized to the carboxylic acid 5 with sodium chlorite, Monopotassium phosphate and 2-methyl-2-butene. Addition of bromine gives halolactonization product 6 and after replacement of the Bcz protective group by a BOC protective group in 7 (hydrogenolysis in the presence of Di-tert-butyl dicarbonate) a carbonyl group is introduced in intermediate 8 by catalytic Ruthenium(IV) oxide and sacrificial catalyst Sodium periodate. Addition of ammonia cleaves the ester group to form amide 9 the alcohol group of which is mesylated to compound 10. In the next step iodobenzene diacetate is added, converting the amide in a Hofmann rearrangement to the allyl carbamate 12 after capturing the intermediate isocyanate with allyl alcohol 11. On addition of sodium ethoxide in ethanol three reactions take place simultaneously: cleavage of the amide to form new an ethyl ester group, displacement of the mesyl group by newly formed BOC protected amine to an aziridine group and an elimination reaction forming the alkene group in 13 with liberation of HBr. In the final two steps the aziridine ring is opened by 3-pentanol 14 and boron trifluoride to aminoether 15 with the BOC group replaced by an acyl group and on removal of the other amine protecting group (Pd/C, Ph3P, and 1,3-dimethylbarbituric acid in ethanol) and addition of phosphoric acid oseltamivir 16 is obtained.

Trost synthesis

In 2008 the group of Barry M. Trost of the Stanford University published the shortest synthetic route to date .

References

^ Influenza Neuraminidase Inhibitors Possessing a Novel Hydrophobic Interaction in the Enzyme Active Site: Design, Synthesis, and Structural Analysis of Carbocyclic Sialic Acid Analogues with Potent Anti-Influenza Activity Kim, C. U.; Lew, W.; Williams, M. A.; Liu, H.; Zhang, L.; Swaminathan, S.; Bischofberger, N.; Chen, M. S.; Mendel, D. B.; Tai, C. Y.; Laver, W. G.; Stevens, R. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc.; (Article); 1997; 119(4); 681-690. doi:10.1021/ja963036t

^ Practical Total Synthesis of the Anti-Influenza Drug GS-4104 John C. Rohloff, Kenneth M. Kent, Michael J. Postich, Mark W. Becker, Harlan H. Chapman, Daphne E. Kelly, Willard Lew, Michael S. Louie, Lawrence R. McGee, Ernest J. Prisbe, Lisa M. Schultze, Richard H. Yu, and Lijun Zhang J. Org. Chem.; 1998; 63(13) pp 4545 - 4550; (Note) doi:10.1021/jo980330q.

^ Abrecht, S.; Harrington, P.; Iding, H.; Karpf, M.; Trussardi, R.; Wirz, B.; Zutter, U. Chimia 2004, 58, 621.

^ New, Azide-Free Transformation of Epoxides into 1,2-Diamino Compounds: Synthesis of the Anti-Influenza Neuraminidase Inhibitor Oseltamivir Phosphate (Tamiflu) Martin Karpf and Ren Trussardi J. Org. Chem.; 2001; 66(6) pp 2044 - 2051; (Article) doi:10.1021/jo005702l.

^ Birgit Bartels and Roger Hunter (1993). "A selectivity study of activated ketal reduction with borane dimethyl sulfide". J. Org. Chem. 58: 6756. doi:10.1021/jo00076a041. 

^ A Short Enantioselective Pathway for the Synthesis of the Anti-Influenza Neuramidase Inhibitor Oseltamivir from 1,3-Butadiene and Acrylic Acid Ying-Yeung Yeung, Sungwoo Hong, and E. J. Corey J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 2006; 128(19) pp 6310 - 6311; (Communication) doi:10.1021/ja0616433

^ De Novo Synthesis of Tamiflu via a Catalytic Asymmetric Ring-Opening of meso-Aziridines with TMSN3 Yuhei Fukuta, Tsuyoshi Mita, Nobuhisa Fukuda, Motomu Kanai, and Masakatsu Shibasaki J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 2006; 128(19) pp 6312 - 6313; doi:10.1021/ja061696k

^ Second Generation Catalytic Asymmetric Synthesis of Tamiflu: Allylic Substitution Route Tsuyoshi Mita, Nobuhisa Fukuda, Francesc X. Roca, Motomu Kanai, and Masakatsu Shibasaki Org. Lett.; 2007; 9(2) pp 259 - 262; (Letter) doi:10.1021/ol062663c

^ A Practical Synthesis of (-)-Oseltamivir Nobuhiro Satoh, Takahiro Akiba, Satoshi Yokoshima, Tohru Fukuyama Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 5734 5736 doi:10.1002/anie.200701754

^ A Concise Synthesis of ()-Oseltamivir Barry M.Trost, Ting Zhang Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 1-4 doi:10.1002/anie.200800282

Categories: Total synthesis | Anti-influenza agents | Neuraminidase inhibitors

Factory farming

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Factory farming

The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the first recorded use of "factory farming" to an American journal of economics in 1890. It is now used widely by mainstream news organizations, including the BBC, The Washington Post, and CNN. A 1998 documentary, A Cow at My Table, shows the term is also used within the agricultural industry, although it is regarded by sections of the industry as a term used by activists. The Encyclopaedia Britannica writes that the term is "descriptive of standard farming practice in the U.S." and frequently used by animal rights activists. Webster's New Millennium defines it as "a system of large-scale industrialized and intensive agriculture that is focused on profit with animals kept indoors and restricted in mobility."

Animal Feeding Operation (AFO)

"An animal feeding operation is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a lot or facility where animals are kept 45 days of the year or more [and] structures or animal traffic prevents vegetative growth. Note that this is different from a EPA's definition of a Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO) which is an animal feeding operation larger than a given size."

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations

In the U.S., some factory farms are also known as Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) confined animal feeding operations, or intensive livestock operations (ILOs). "A confined animal feeding operation means a lot or facility, together with any associated treatment works, where both of the following conditions are met. One, animals have been, are, or will be stabled or confined and fed or maintained for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period. And two, crops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained over any portion of the operation lot or facility." The definition is used as part of waste management and environmental protection laws to deal with the concentrated pollution from large quantities of animal waste.

Confinement

CAFOs and factory farms can be mostly indoors or mostly outdoors operations. The "confinement at high stocking density" aspect refers to lack of natural vegetation that the animals can eat and that can naturally process the resulting animal waste. High stocking density destroys the vegetation and produces unacceptable pollution from the animal waste in run-off and ground water unless it is handled appropriately, so laws have been enacted to deal with that; thus the legal definition for the term CAFO.

History

Agriculture adopted more intensive methods during the 18th century, with this growth in production best characterized by the Agricultural Revolution, where improvements in farming techniques allowed for significantly improved yields, and supported the urbanization of the population during the Industrial Revolution.

Innovations in agriculture beginning in the late 19th century paralleled developments in mass production in other industries. The identification of nitrogen and phosphorus as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers, making possible more intensive types of agriculture.

The first animals to be factory farmed were chickens. The discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition, in the first two decades of the 20th century, led to vitamin supplements, which in 1920s America allowed chickens to be raised indoors. The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in larger numbers by reducing disease. Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides. Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long-distance distribution of agricultural produce feasible.

According to the BBC, factory farming in Britain began in 1947 when a new Agriculture Act granted subsidies to farmers to encourage greater output by introducing new technology, in order to reduce Britain's reliance on imported meat. The United Nations writes that intensification of animal production was seen as a way of providing food security.

In 1960's America pigs and cows began to be raised on factory farms. This innovation then spread to Western Europe. In Britain, the agriculture correspondent of The Guardian wrote in 1964:

Factory farming, whether we like it or not, has come to stay. The tide will not be held back, either by the humanitarian outcry of well meaning but sometimes misguided animal lovers, by the threat implicit to traditional farming methods, or by the sentimental approach to a rural way of life. In a year which has been as uneventful on the husbandry side as it has been significant in economic and political developments touching the future of food procurement, the more far-seeing would name the growth of intensive farming as the major development.

From its American and West European heartland factory farming became globalised in the later years of the twentieth century and is still expanding and replacing traditional practices of stock rearing in an increasing number of countries. In 1990 factory farming accounted for 30% of world meat production. By 2005 this had risen to 40%.

Nature of the practice

Scale

Agricultural production across the world doubled four times between 1820 and 1975 to feed a global population of one billion human beings in 1800 and 6.5 billion in 2002.

During the same period, the number of people involved in farming dropped as the process became more automated. In the 1930s, 24 percent of the American population worked in agriculture compared to 1.5 percent in 2002; in 1940, each farm worker supplied 11 consumers, whereas in 2002, each worker supplied 90 consumers.

The number of farms has also decreased, and their ownership is more concentrated. In the U.S., four companies produce 81 percent of cows, 73 percent of sheep, 57 percent of pigs and 50 percent of chickens. In 1967, there were one million pig farms in America; as of 2002, there were 114,000, with 80 million pigs (out of 95 million) killed each year on factory farms as of 2002, according to the U.S. National Pork Producers Council. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry, 43 percent of beef, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.

Europe has become increasingly skeptical of factory farming, after a series of diseases such as BSE (mad cow) and foot and mouth disease affected its agricultural industries, yet despite these outbreaks there are indications that the industrialized production of farm animals is set to increase globally. According to Denis Avery of the Hudson Institute, Asia increased its consumption of pork by 18 million tons in the 1990s. As of 1997, the world had a stock of 900 million pigs, which Avery predicts will rise to 2.5 billion pigs by 2050. He told the College of Natural Resources at the University of California, Berkeley that three billion pigs will thereafter be needed annually to meet demand.

Distinctive characteristics

Cows in a factory farm in the U.S.

Factory farms hold large numbers of animals, typically cows, pigs, turkeys, or chickens, often indoors, typically at high densities. The aim of the operation is to produce as much meat, eggs, or milk at the lowest possible cost. Food is supplied in place, and a wide variety of artificial methods are employed to maintain animal health and improve production, such as the use of antimicrobial agents, vitamin supplements, and growth hormones. Physical restraints are used to control movement or actions regarded as undesirable. Breeding programs are used to produce animals more suited to the confined conditions and able to provide a consistent food product.[citation needed]

The distinctive characteristic of factory farms is the intense concentration of livestock. At one farm (Farm 2105) run by Carrolls Foods of North Carolina, the second-largest pig producer in the U.S., twenty pigs are kept per pen and each confinement building or "hog parlor" holds 25 pens. The company's chief executive officer, F.J. "Sonny" Faison, has said: "It's all a supply-and-demand price question The meat business in this country is just about perfect, uncontrolled supply-and-demand free enterprise. And it continues to get more and more sophisticated, based on science. Only the least-cost producer survives in agriculture." Faison states tongue-in-cheek:

They're in state-of-the-art confinement facilities. The conditions that we keep these animals in are much more humane than when they were out in the field. Today they're in housing that is environmentally controlled in many respects. And the feed is right there for them all the time, and water, fresh water. They're looked after in some of the best conditions, because the healthier and [more] content that animal, the better it grows. So we're very interested in their well-beingp to an extent.

Key issues

Ethics

The large concentration of animals, animal waste, and the potential for dead animals in a small space poses ethical issues.[clarification needed] It is recognized that some techniques used to sustain intensive agriculture can be cruel to animals. As awareness of the problems of intensive techniques has grown, there have been some efforts by governments and industry to remove inappropriate techniques.

In the UK, the Farm Animal Welfare Council was set up by the government to act as an independent advisor on animal welfare in 1979. and expresses its policy as five freedoms: from hunger & thirst; from discomfort; from pain, injury or disease; to express normal behavior; from fear and distress.

There are differences around the world as to which practices are accepted and there continue to be changes in regulations with animal welfare being a strong driver for increased regulation. For example, the EU is bringing in further regulation to set maximum stocking densities for meat chickens by 2010, where the UK Animal Welfare Minister commented, "The welfare of meat chickens is a major concern to people throughout the European Union. This agreement sends a strong message to the rest of the world that we care about animal welfare.40]

However, given the assumption that intensive farming techniques are a necessity, it is recognized that some apparently cruel techniques are better than the alternative.[clarification needed] For example, in the UK, de-beaking of chickens is deprecated, but it is recognized that it is a method of last resort, seen as better than allowing vicious fighting and ultimately cannibalism. Between 60 and 70 percent of six million breeding sows in the U.S. are confined during pregnancy, and for most of their adult lives, in 2 ft (0.61 m) by 7 ft (2.1 m) gestation crates. According to pork producers and many veterinarians, sows will fight if housed in pens. The largest pork producer in the U.S. said in January 2007 that it will phase out gestation crates by 2017. They are being phased out in the European Union, with a ban effective in 2013 after the fourth week of pregnancy. With the evolution of factory farming, there has been a growing awareness of the issues amongst the wider public, not least due to the efforts of animal rights and welfare campaigners. As a result gestation crates, one of the more contentious practices, are the subject of laws in the U.S., Europe and around the world to phase out their use as a result of pressure to adopt less confined practices'.

U.S. consumer preferences

A study done by Oklahoma State University, utilizes results of a representative telephone survey to measure consumer attitudes towards farm animal welfare, and investigates how these attitudes vary across individuals. The survey finds that consumers desire high standards of animal care, even if it raises food prices and involves government regulation. Support is particularly strong from females, Democrats, and residents of the Northeastern United States. To provide high standards of animal care, consumers as a whole perceive allowing animals to exhibit natural behaviors and exercise outdoors to be more important than protection from other animals, shelter, socialization, and comfortable bedding. Consumers vary in their perceptions though, and are divided into three classes of consumers: Naturalists, Price Seekers, and Descartes Entourage. Naturalists place great importance on allowing animals to exhibit natural behaviors and exercise outdoors, and comprise 46% of the sample. Price Seekers, comprising 14% of the sample, are primarily concerned with low prices. Descartes' Entourage make up 40% of the respondents, and value animal welfare but perceive it can be achieved by simply providing food, water, and treatment for injury and disease. This last group perceives amenities such as access to outdoors and ability to exhibit natural behaviors unimportant for the well-being of farm animals.

Human health impact

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), farms on which animals are intensively reared can cause adverse health reactions in farm workers. Workers may develop acute and chronic lung disease, musculoskeletal injuries, and may catch infections that transmit from animals to human beings.

Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful and they save farmers money by preventing product losses to pests. In the US, about a quarter of pesticides used are used in houses, yards, parks, golf courses, and swimming pools and about 70% are used in agriculture. However, pesticides can make their way into consumers' bodies which can cause health problems. One source of this is bioaccumulation in animals raised on factory farms.

The CDC writes that chemical, bacterial, and viral compounds from animal waste may travel in the soil and water. Residents near such farms report nuisances such as unpleasant smell, flies and adverse health effects.

The CDC has identified a number of pollutants associated with the discharge of animal waste into rivers and lakes, and into the air. The use of antibiotics may create antibiotic-resistant pathogens; parasites, bacteria, and viruses may be spread; ammonia, nitrogen, and phosphorus can reduce oxygen in surface waters and contaminate drinking water; pesticides and hormones may cause hormone-related changes in fish; animal feed and feathers may stunt the growth of desirable plants in surface waters and provide nutrients to disease-causing micro-organisms; trace elements such as arsenic and copper, which are harmful to human health, may contaminate surface waters.

In the European Union, growth hormones are banned on the basis that there is no way of determining a safe level. The UK has stated that in the event of the EU raising the ban at some future date, to comply with a precautionary approach, it would only consider the introduction of specific hormones, proven on a case by case basis. In 1998, the European Union banned feeding animals antibiotics that were found to be valuable for human health. Furthermore, in 2006 the European Union banned all drugs for livestock that were used for growth promotion purposes. As a result of these bans, the levels of antibiotic resistance in animal products and within the human population showed a decrease.

The various techniques of factory farming have been associated with a number of European incidents where public health has been threatened or large numbers of animals have had to be slaughtered to deal with disease. Where disease breaks out, it may spread more quickly, not only due to the concentrations of animals, but because modern approaches tend to distribute animals more widely.[citation needed]. The international trade in animal products increases the risk of global transmission of virulent diseases such as swine fever, BSE, foot and mouth and bird flu.

In April 2009, lawmakers in the Mexican state of Veracruz accused large-scale hog and poultry operations of being breeding grounds of a pandemic swine flu, although they did not present scientific evidence to support their claim. A swine flu which quickly killed more than 100 infected persons in that area, appears to have begun in the vicinity of a Smithfield subsidiary pig CAFO.

Animal health impact

The result of confinement and overcrowding is a lack of exercise and natural locomotory behavior for the animals. This, in turn, weakens both their bones and muscles. In addition, an intensive poultry farm provides the optimum conditions for viral mutation and transmission - thousands of birds crowded together in a closed, warm and dusty environment is highly conducive to the transmission of a contagious disease. Selecting generations of birds for their faster growth rates and higher meat yields has left birds immune systems less able to cope with infections and there is a high degree of genetic uniformity in the population, making spread of the virus more easy. Further intensification of the industry has been suggested by some as the solution to avian flu, on the rationale that keeping birds indoors will prevent contamination. However, this relies on perfect, fail-safe biosecurity and such measures are near impossible to implement. Movement between farms of people, materials and vehicles poses a threat and breaches in biosecurity are possible. Intensive farming is creating highly virulent avian lu strains. With the frequent flow of goods within and between countries, the potential for disease spread is high. Confinement and overcrowding of animals' environment presents the risk of contamination of the meat from viruses and bacteria. Feedlot animals reside in crowded conditions and often spend their time standing in their own waste. In fact, a dairy farm with 2,500 cows may produce as much waste as a city of 411,000 people, and unlike a city in which human waste ends up at a sewage treatment plant, livestock waste is not treated. As a result, feedlot animals have the potential of exposure to various viruses and bacteria via the manure and urine in their environment. Furthermore, the animals often have residual manure on their bodies when they go to slaughter.

Environmental impact

Concentrating large numbers of animals in factory farms is a major contribution to global environmental degradation, through the need to grow feed (often by intensive methods using excessive fertiliser and pesticides), pollution of water, soil and air by agrochemicals and manure waste, and use of limited resources (water, energy).

Livestock production is also particularly water-intensive in indoor, intensive systems. Eight per cent of global human water use goes towards animal production.

Industrial production of pigs and poultry is an important source of GHG emissions and is predicted to become more so. On intensive pig farms, the animals are generally kept on concrete with slats or grates for the manure to drain through. The manure is usually stored in slurry form (slurry is a liquid mixture of urine and faeces). During storage on farm, slurry emits methane and when manure is spread on fields it emits nitrous oxide and causes nitrogen pollution of land and water. Poultry manure from factory farms emits high levels of nitrous oxide and ammonia.

Organic pig meat production has a lower global warming potential per kg than does intensive pig meat production. The GHG emissions for free-range poultry meat are slightly higher than for factory-farmed poultry meat.

Environmental impacts of factory farming can include:

Deforestation for animal feed production

Unsustainable pressure on land for production of high-protein/high-energy animal feed

Pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser manufacture and use for feed production

Unsustainable use of water for feed-crops, including groundwater extraction

Pollution of soil, water and air by nitrogen and phosphorus from fertiliser used for feed-crops and from manure

Land degradation (reduced fertility, soil compaction, increased salinity, desertification)

Loss of biodiversity due to eutrophication, acidification, pesticides and herbicides

Worldwide reduction of genetic diversity of livestock and loss of traditional breeds

Species extinctions due to livestock-related habitat destruction (especially feed-cropping)

Animal welfare impact

Animal welfare impacts of factory farming can include:

Close confinement systems (cages, crates) or lifetime confinement in indoor sheds

Discomfort and injuries caused by inappropriate flooring and housing

Restriction or prevention of normal exercise and most of natural foraging or exploratory behaviour

Restriction or prevention of natural maternal nesting behaviour

Lack of daylight or fresh air and poor air quality in animal sheds

Social stress and injuries caused by overcrowding

Health problems caused by extreme selective breeding and management for fast growth and high productivity

Reduced lifetime (longevity) of breeding animals (dairy cows, breeding sows)

Fast-spreading infections encouraged by crowding and stress in intensive conditions

Male chicks, which are too scrawny for meat and incapable of laying eggs, may be liquidated as inventory

Farmed animals and the law

Farmed animals are excluded by most state animal cruelty laws and the federal Animal Welfare Act (AWA). The 28 hour law, enacted in 1873 and amended in 1994, covers farmed animals during transportation only. The law states that when animals are being transported for slaughter, the vehicle must stop every 28 hours and the animals must be let out for exercise, food, and water. The United States Department of Agriculture claims that the law does not apply to birds. The Humane Methods of Livestock Slaughter Act is similarly limited. Originally passed in 1958, the Act requires that livestock be stunned into unconsciousness prior to slaughter. This Act also excludes birds, who make up more than 90 percent of the animals slaughtered for food, as well as rabbits and fish. Individual states all have their own animal cruelty statutes; however many states have a provision to exempt standard agricultural practices.

Aspects of factory farming

Low monetary cost Intensive agriculture tends to produce food that can be sold at lower cost to consumers. This is achieved by reducing land costs, management costs, and feed costs through government subsidized agricultural methods.

Standardization Factory farming methods permit increased consistency and control over product output.

Efficiency Animals in confinement can be supervised more closely than free-ranging animals, and diseased animals can be treated faster. Further, more efficient production of meat, milk, or eggs results in a need for fewer animals to be raised.

Economic contribution The high input costs of agricultural operations result in a large influx and distribution of capital to a rural area from distant buyers rather than simply recirculating existing capital. A single dairy cow contributes over $1300 US to a local rural economy each year, each beef cow over $800, meat turkey $14, and so on. As Pennsylvania Secretary of Agriculture Dennis Wolff states, "Research estimates that the annual economic impact per cow is $13,737. In addition, each $1 million increase in PA milk sales creates 23 new jobs. This tells us that dairy farms are good for Pennsylvania's economy."

Food safety Reducing number and diversity of agricultural production facilities may make oversight and regulation of food quality easier.

Animal health Larger farms may employ greater resources to maintain a high level of animal health. Larger farms can potentially employ expert employees who devote their working hours to assessing animal health, a task which would be cost-prohibitive for most small farms. Larger farms may be more able to make regular use of veterinarians and the resources of state and federal agricultural extension services. Industrial agriculture generally provides more mechanisms for the use of antibiotics to prevent and treat diseases than non-industrial agriculture.

Diseases - Intensive farming may make the evolution and spread of harmful diseases easier. Many communicable diseases spread rapidly through densely spaced populations of animals with low genetic diversity. Animals raised on antibiotics may develop antibiotic resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria ("superbugs"). Use of animal vaccines can create new viruses that kill people and cause flu pandemic threats. H5N1 is an example of where this might have already occurred.

Pollution Large quantities and concentrations of waste are produced. Lakes, rivers, and groundwater are at risk when animal waste is improperly recycled. Pollutant gases are also emitted. Concentrations of animals can produce unacceptable levels of foul smells as opposed to the tolerable odours of the countryside. In less intensive conditions, natural processes can break down potential pollutants. Large farms can maintain and operate sophisticated systems to control waste products. Smaller farms may be less able to invest in the same standards of pollution control.[citation needed]

Ethics Cruelty to animals: Crowding, drugging, and performing surgery on animals. On some farms, chicks may be debeaked when very young. Confining hens and pigs in crates no larger than the animal itself may lead to physical problems such as osteoporosis and joint pain, and psychological problems including boredom and frustration, as shown by repetitive or self-destructive actions. Animal treatment is subject to welfare legislation, though there is not consensus on what is acceptable, and there is virtually no oversight by authorities.[citation needed]

Destruction of biodiversity A tendency towards using single adapted breeds (a monoculture) in factory farming, both in arable and animal farming, gives uniform product designed for high yields, at the risk of increased susceptibility to disease. The loss of locally adapted breeds reduces the resilience of the agricultural system. The issue is not limited to factory farming and historically the problem is reflected in the rapid adoption of one or two strains of crops across a wide area as seen in the Irish potato famine of 1845 and the Bengal rice famine in 1942. The loss of the gene pool of domesticated animals limits the ability to adapt to future problems.

Nutrient-poor food - Heavy reliance on non-heritage, high-yield breeds of plants and animals reduce nutrient content.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Factory farming

Cattle Health Initiative

Chicken: The Dangerous Transformation of America's Favorite Food (book)

Environmental vegetarianism

Feedlot

Food systems

Humane Slaughter Act

List of foodborne illness outbreaks

Permaculture

Small-scale agriculture

System of Rice Intensification

Battery cage

Battery Hen Welfare Trust

Gestation Crate

Notes

^ Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":

Fraser, David. Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005.

Turner, Jacky. "History of factory farming", United Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ... The intensive systems - called 'factory farms' - were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in barren and unnatural conditions."

Simpson, John. Why the organic revolution had to happen, The Observer, April 21, 2001: "Nor is a return to 'primitive' farming practices the only alternative to factory farming and highly intensive agriculture."

Baker, Stanley. "Factory farms the only answer to our growing appetite?, The Guardian, December 29, 1964: "Factory farming, whether we like it or not, has come to stay ... In a year which has been as uneventful on the husbandry side as it has been significant in economic and political developments touching the future of food procurement, the more far-seeing would name the growth of intensive farming as the major development." (Note: Stanley Baker was the Guardian's agriculture correspondent.)

"Head to head: Intensive farming", BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."

^ Sources discussing "industrial farming" , "industrial agriculture" and "factory farming":

"Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "'Factory' farming refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture.

"Head to head: Intensive farming", BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."

^ a b c Kaufmann, Mark. "Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates", The Washington Post, January 26, 2007.

^ "EU tackles BSE crisis", BBC News, November 29, 2000.

^ "Is factory farming really cheaper?" in New Scientist, Institution of Electrical Engineers, New Science Publications, University of Michigan, 1971, p. 12.

^ Danielle Nierenberg (2005) Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry. Worldwatch Paper 121: 5

^ "Factory farming," Encyclopedia Britannica, 2007.

^ Doug Gurian-Sherman. April 2008. CAFOs Uncovered: The Untold Costs of Confined Animal Feeding Operations, Union of Concerned Scientists, Cambridge, MA.

^ VOA News article Demand for Animal Products May Double in 20 years published October 16, 2007

^ Oxford English Dictionary, Second Ed. factory

^ Alberta Farm Animal Care Update, Fall 2005

^ Britannica concise definition

^ Factory farming, Webster's New Millennium Dictionary of English, Preview Edition (v 0.9.6). Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. (accessed: April 4, 2007).

^ Environmental Protection Agency. "Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)". http://www.epa.gov/region7/water/cafo/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-19. 

^ a b "State of the World 2006," Worldwatch Institute, p. 26.

^ a b c "Concentrated animal feeding operations", Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States Department of Health and Human Services.

^ "Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOS)/Factory Farming", Library of Michigan Bibliography.

^ Comparative Standards for Intensive Livestock Operations in Canada, Mexico, and the United States.

^ ext.vt.edu General Permit Requirements for Confined Animal Feeding Operations in Virginia

^ Sierra Club Clean Water and Factory Farms - Frequently Asked Questions

^ John Steele Gordon (1996) "The Chicken Story", American Heritage, September 1996: 52-67

^ John Steele Gordon (1996) "The Chicken Story", American Heritage, September 1996: 52-67

^ "The History of Factory Farming", United Nations.

^ Danielle Nierenburg (2005) Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry. Worldwatch Paper 171: 15

^ Baker, Stanley. "Factory farmshe only answer to our growing appetite?", The Guardian, December 29, 1964.

^ Danielle Nierenburg (2005) Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry. Worldwatch Paper 171: 5

^ Danielle Nierenburg (2005) Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry. Worldwatch Paper 171: 5

^ Danielle Nierenburg (2005) Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry. Worldwatch Paper 171: 5

^ It doubled between 1820 and 1920; between 1920 and 1950; between 1950 and 1965; and again between 1965 and 1975. Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, p. 29.

^ a b c Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, p. 29.

^ Testimony by Leland Swenson, president of the U.S. National Farmers' Union, before the House Judiciary Committee, September 12, 2000.

^ Shen, Fern. "Md. Hog Farm Causing Quite a Stink," The Washington Post, May 23, 1999; and Plain, Ronald L. "Trends in U.S. Swine Industry," U.S. Meat Export Federation Conference, September 24, 1997, cited in Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, p. 29.

^ a b Avery, Dennis. "Big Hog Farms Help the Environment," Des Moines Register, December 7, 1997, cited in Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, p. 30.

^ Avery, Denis. "Commencement address," University of California, Berkeley, College of Natural Resources, May 21, 2000, cited in Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, p. 30.

^ Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, pp. 259.

^ Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, 2002, pp. 255256.

^ Scully, Matthew. Dominion, St. Martin's Griffin, 2002, p. 258.

^ a b http://www.kt.iger.bbsrc.ac.uk/FACT%20sheet%20PDF%20files/kt32.pdf UK DEFRA comment on de-beaking recognizing it as cruel

^ http://www.fawc.org.uk/default.htm Farm Animal Welfare Council

^ http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2007/070508b.htm DEFRA press release

^ Barnett JL, Hemsworth PH, Cronin GM, Jongman EC, and Hutson GD. 2001. "A review of the welfare issues for sows and piglets in relation to housing," Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 52:1-28. Cited in: Pajor EA. 2002. "Group housing of sows in small pens: advantages, disadvantages and recent research," In: Reynells R (ed.), Proceedings: Symposium on Swine Housing and Well-being (Des Moines, Iowa: U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, June 5, pp. 37-44). In: An HSUS Report: Welfare Issues with Gestation Crates for Pregnant Sows, Humane Society of the United States.

^ The Welfare of Sows in Gestation Crates: A Summary of the Scientific Evidence., Farm Sanctuary.

^ "An HSUS Report: Welfare Issues with Gestation Crates for Pregnant Sows", The Humane Society of the United States, January 6, 2006.

^ The true cost of cheap chicken - Home News, UK - Independent.co.uk

^ Animal rights concerns grow in California

^ Washington Post: Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates

^ Prickett, Robert W, F. Bailey Norwood and Jayson L. Lusk. onsumer Preferences for Farm Animal Welfare: Results from a Telephone Survey of U.S. Households Unpublished. Oklahoma State University.

^ "Factory Farming: The Impact of Animal Feeding Operations on the Environment and Health of Local Communities". http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/conference/2006_conference/abstracts/session_D1.html. Retrieved 2009-12-13. 

^ The benefits of pesticides: A story worth telling. Purdue.edu. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.

^ a b Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and run-off from farm fields. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 3 October 2007.

^ a b Miller GT (2004), Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, Pages 211-216.

^ Sustainable Table article Pesticides

^ Pesticides In the Environment. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 6. cornell.edu. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.

^ Food Standards Agency - VPC report on growth hormones in meat

^ Schneider K, Garrett L (June 19, 2009). "Non-therapeutic Use of Antibiotics in Animal Agriculture, Corresponding Resistance Rates, and What Can be Done About It". http://www.cgdev.org/content/article/detail/1422307/. 

^ http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_16964.cfm

^ EUGRINET article Fighting swine fever in Europe (Project Coordinator: Dr Trevor Drew at Veterinary Laboratories Agency)

^ David Kirby (2009-04-28). "Mexican Lawmaker: Factory Farms Are "Breeding Grounds" of Swine Flu Pandemic". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-kirby/mexican-lawmaker-factory_b_191579.html. Retrieved 2009-04-28. 

^ Compassion in World Farming - Animal health and disease

^ "Food Safety Consequences of Factory Farms". Food & Water Watch. March, 2007. http://www.foodandwaterwatch.org:8080/Plone/food/factoryfarms/FoodSafetyFactoryFarms.pdf. 

^ a b c d e f Compassion in World Farming - Environment & sustainability

^

^ ALDF Farmed Animals and the Law

^ Dairy in Pennsylvania: A VITAL ELEMENT FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

^ "Agricultural Antibiotic Use Contributes To 'Super-bugs' In Humans", ScienceDaily, July 5, 2005.

^ Webster, Robert G. "H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza", CDC.

^ "Factory farms are responsible for bird flu, according to a new report". NF News. February 20, 2007. http://www.noticiasfinancieras.com/v2/client/modules/search/office.php?id=ODg2MnwxfDIwMDctMDItMjAgMTM6MDQ6NDF8. 

^ Stephen Leahy (February 21, 2007). "Report Blames Factory Farms for Bird Flu". IPS. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines07/0221-03.htm. 

^ "Facts about Pollution from Livestock Farms". National Resource Defense Council. http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/ffarms.asp. Retrieved 2006-05-30. 

^ "The Welfare of Intensively Kept Pigseport of the Scientific Veterinary Committeedopted 30 September 1997, European Commission, and "Opinion of the AHAW Panel related to the welfare aspects of various systems of keeping laying hens", European Food Safety Authority (7 March 2005)

^ http://www.asiasource.org/asip/swaminathan.cfm Science and Our Agricultural Future M. S. Swaminathan UNESCO Chair in Ecotechnology M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India

Further reading

Bernstein, Mark H. Without a Tear: Our Tragic Relationship With Animals. University of Illinois Press, 2004. ISBN 0252071980

Brooman, Simon & Legge, Debbi. Law Relating To Animals. Cavendish Publishing. ISBN 1843141299

Roberts, Paul (2008). The End of Food. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780618606238. 

The State of Meat Production in Developing Countries: 2002 from The State of the Animals II: 2003 ISBN 0-9658942-7-4

Compassion in World Farming - Publications (various)

Health Risks of Hog Confinements

External links

"Bacon as a Weapon of Mass Destruction" - video by Democracy Now!

Categories: Agriculture | Industrial agriculture | Livestock | Poultry farming | Animal rights | Meat processing | Animal crueltyHidden categories: NPOV disputes from January 2010 | Articles with minor POV problems from January 2010 | All articles with minor POV problems | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from July 2007 | All pages needing cleanup | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2009 | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from May 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2009

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Not to be confused with interior decoration, interior design, which evolved from interior decoration, involves a multitude of technical, analytical, creative skills, and understandings of architectural elements. There is a wide range of disciplines within the career of interior design. Domestically the profession of interior design encompasses those designers who may specialize in residential or commercial interior design. Within residential design one can specialize in kitchen and bathroom design, universal design, design for the aged, multifamily housing amongst others. Other interior designers may dwell in the commercial or contract realm of interior space design. In addition to the above commercial interior designers may specialize in furniture design, healthcare design, hospitality design, retail design, workspace design, sustainability, and if they are a registered architect they can focus on the interior architecture of a space. It is the intent of the professional interior designer to improve the psychological and/or physiological well being of their clients. The professional interior designer achieves this by understanding their clients needs, seeking appropriate solutions, respect their clients social, physical and psychological needs and applying them in a safe and ecologically sensitive manner that promotes the health, safety and welfare of the clients. Interior decoration deals with the home renovations that can be easily and quickly changed, and at lower budgets such as changing kitchen cabinets, selecting wall paper, selecting furniture and usually does not deal with structural building codes. An interior decorator does not need a degree, but has a certificate in interior decorating, while an interior designer would have a four year degree in interior design. The word "decorator" in the phrase "interior decorator" is not an accurate one, since the decorator also changes style and quality of life with a home renovation, so the phrase should be: interior decorator/stylist. electric massage table

Working conditions

There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, which make up 26% of interior designers, usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs. In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality and relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work tends to involve a great deal of traveling to visit different locations, studios, or client's homes and offices. Usually this work is done under the supervision of a design professional such as an Architect. With the aid of recent technology, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel. Some argue that virtual makeovers have revolutionized interior design from a customer perspective, making the design process more interactive and exciting, in a relatively technological but labor-intensive environment.

Earnings

Interior design earnings vary based on employer, number of years with experience, and the reputation of the individual. For residential projects, self-employed interior designers usually earn a per-hour fee plus a percentage of the total cost of furniture, lighting, artwork, and other design elements. For commercial projects, they may charge per-hour fees, or a flat fee for the whole project. The median annual earning for wage and salary interior designers, in the year 2006, was $42,260. The middle 50% earned between $31,830 and $57,230. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $24,270, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $78,760.

While median earnings are an important indicator of average salaries, it is essential to look at additional key factors in a discussion about revenue generated from design services. Location, demographic of client base and scope of work all affect the potential earnings of a designer. With regard to location, central metropolitan areas where costs of living expenses and median earnings are generally greater, so is the potential for higher earnings for the interior designers and decorators in these locations. Indeed, urban areas attract a greater population of potential clients thereby creating a greater demand for design services. Additionally, as the average square footage of homes and offices has increased over time, the scope of work performed translates directly to higher earnings. Scope refers to the overall size and detail of a project - materials, furnishings, paint, fabrics and architectural embellishments utilized are all examples of scope. As stated above, earnings for interior designers and decorators may include a margin charged to the client as a percentage of the total cost of certain furniture and fixtures used in the scope of work. Hence, as scope increases, so do earnings.

Interior Styles

Contemporary style design at Expo Design MAP (2007)

A style, or theme, is a consistent idea used throughout a room to create a feeling of completeness. Styles are not to be confused with design concepts, or the higher-level party, which involve a deeper understanding of the architectural context, the socio-cultural and the programmatic requirements of the client These themes often follow period styles. Examples of this are Louis XV, Louis XVI, Victorian, Islamic, Feng Shui, International, Mid-Century Modern, Minimalist, English Georgian, Gothic, Indian Mughal, Art Deco, and many more. The evolution of interior decoration themes has now grown to include themes not necessarily consistent with a specific period style allowing the mixing of pieces from different periods. Each element should contribute to form, function, or both and maintain a consistent standard of quality and combine to create the desired design. A designer develops a home architecture and interior design for a customer that has a style and theme that the prospective owner likes and mentally connects to. For the last 10 years, decorators, designers, and architects have been re-discovering the unique furniture that was developed post-war of the 1950s and the 1960s from new material that were developed for military applications. Some of the trendsetters include Charles and Ray Eames, Knoll and Herman Miller. Themes in home design are usually not overused, but serves as a guideline for designing.

On television

Interior decoration has become a popular television subject. In the United Kingdom (UK), popular interior decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC) and Selling Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network airs a popular program called Trading Spaces, a show with a format similar to the UK program Changing Rooms. In addition, both Home & Garden Television (HGTV) and the Discovery Home networks also televise many programs about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators and home improvement experts in a myriad of projects. Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will & Grace. There is also another show called "Home MADE". There are two teams and two houses and whoever has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime and Designed to Sell and The Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price.

Interior decorators

Other early interior decorators:

Elsie de Wolfe

Syrie Maugham

Sybil Colefax

Dorothy Draper

Pierre Franois Lonard Fontaine

Many of the most famous designers and decorators during the 20th Century had no formal training. Sister Parish, Mark Hampton, Robert Denning and Vincent Fourcade, Stephen Chase, Mario Buatta, John Saladino, Kerry Joyce, Kelly Wearstler, Stphane Boudin, Georges Geffroy, Emilio Terry, Carlos de Beistegui, Nina Petronzio, Lorenzo Mongiardino, Billy Baldwin, David Nightingale Hicks, Barbara Barry, Jeanine Naviaux and many others were trend-setting innovators in the worlds of design and decoration.

See also

Interior design photo bank

Interior architecture

Architecture

Blueprint

Environmental psychology

Interior design education

Feng Shui

Paint

Notes

^ http://www.ncidq.org/ Retrieved September 1, 2009.

^ "Employment." Occupational Outlook Handbook: 2008-09 Edition, US Department of Labor

^ Industrial Design Industry Report, IBIS World, July 17 2008

^ "Earnings", Occupational Outlook Handbook: 2008-09 Edition, US Department of Labor

References

Ball, Victoria K.; Opportunities In Interior Design and Decorating Careers. USA: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

Farr, Michael; Top 100 Careers for College Students. 7th ed. Indianapolis: JIST Works, 2007.

US Census Bureau, Industrial Design NAICS Definition

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Interiors

Categories: Home economics | Interior designHidden categories: Articles that may contain original research from April 2008 | All articles that may contain original research

Volant skis

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Lumines

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Gameplay

Lumines is a block-dropping game, that may seem at first to be similar to Columns and Tetris. A 2 x 2 square (an O tetromino) made of four smaller block pieces is dropped into the playing field, which may appear different as the player advances through levels or skins. The small blocks that comprise the larger blocks will be one of two different colors. The objective is to rotate and align the blocks in such a way as to create 2x2 squares of the same color, which may span multiple blocks and, indeed, share blocks. For example, if one should get a 2x3 area of matching blocks, the middle portion will "share" itself with both the left and right halves and create two 2x2 squares. After the "timeline", which is synchronized to the music, sweeps over the matching blocks, they disappear. When too many unmatched blocks pile up to the point where no more blocks may be dropped in the playing field, the game ends.

When part of a falling block hits an obstruction, the unobstructed portion of the block will split off and continue to fall. More points are scored by creating the largest number of squares during one "timeline" sweep. Increasing score multipliers are earned by repeatedly clearing squares on consecutive timeline sweeps. Bonuses are also awarded by reducing all remaining tiles to one single color or for removing all non-active tiles from the screen altogether. ethernet managed switch

Occasionally, a block falls with a special square of one of the two colors with a "jewel" in the center. This square, when cleared as part of a matched 2x2 square, will cause all individual blocks of the same color that are horizontally or vertically adjacent to the matched 2x2 square, or to an adjacent square, to be cleared without score. These can be used for both generating large bonuses, since generally several blocks of the other color will be formed once these are removed, as well as to help the player recover if the field becomes too cluttered. cat5e patch panel

Skins voice logger

Screenshot from the game, with the Roundabout theme selected.

Lumines is played in different "skins". Like the software interface skins, these change the visual appearance of the board, but they also control the soundtrack. Each skin contains a different music track and different sound effects, which are triggered by game events and then integrated into the soundtrack. As in Mizuguchi's earlier game, Rez, the soundtrack and sound effects are much more integral to the game than in most others. Skins are unlocked by progressing through the different game modes, or in four-level intervals in challenge mode. Each skin also changes the rate at which the timeline moves across the screen, in time with the music. This can affect the game play; faster tempos make it more difficult to create large combos, and slower tempos may cause the playing field to fill while waiting for the timeline to sweep across. The visual changes can also be jarring. While it's generally easy to distinguish the two colors, nearly always a light and a dark one, the contrast of these colors with the background can be difficult to make out, and thus can make playing more difficult. Compounding this are distracting elements like animated backgrounds and frenetic music.

In addition, the order that the skins are presented to the player in both Challenge and Vs. CPU mode are fixed in a pre-set order that loops around indefinitely. (While this is also true for the basic mode in Lumines Live, this game also includes the ability to create one's own desired skin order). The order of the presentation of the skins can affect the difficulty of the game as well; for example, a fast-paced skin which can cause a lot of blocks to pile up, followed by a skin with a very slow timeline can make it difficult to recover from earlier mistakes. Skins change regularly after a fixed number of 2x2 squares are removed, tracked by a "level" indicator, so that one can prepare for the visual disruption caused by the change.

Game modes

There are 4 basic modes in the game, Challenge, Time Attack, Puzzle, Vs., and Vs. CPU Mode. Challenge Mode cycles through skins in a fixed order of generally increasing difficulty, and is played until the blocks pile up to the top of the screen. The maximum score in Challenge Mode is 999,999 points. Time Attack games give the player a limited time to clear as many blocks as possible. Puzzle mode challenges the player to create pictures (such as a cat, dog, cross, etc.) by forming the picture with one color while surrounding it with the opposite color. Vs. CPU mode is a series of battles against A.I. opponents. A line splits the playing field in half, and deleting blocks or combinations of blocks shifts the line towards the opposing player, giving the opposing player less room on their side. The battle ends when blocks pile up all the way to the top of the screen for one player. Two players with PSPs can use their wireless connection to play in the same way.

It is theoretically possible to beat at least the slow parts of the single-player Challenge mode of Lumines deterministically . By dividing the game board into separate sections, and using each section to clear blocks of only a single type, it is always possible to place a piece so that the game state stays in a loop. However, this tactic is not completely foolproof; it will only work as long as the speed of the falling blocks (which can increase or decrease with changes in the "skin") does not exceed the ability of the player to place them before landing and the timeline moves quickly enough to delete the blocks. A jewel (deleting all blocks of the same colour that are aligned to it) can also mess up this tactic.

Sequels and follow-ups

In September 2005, mobile gamemaker Gameloft announced that they would be bringing both Meteos and Lumines to cell phones. Lumines Mobile was released on March 1, 2006. It is provided by some US phone companies (Verizon, Sprint Nextel). In February, 2007 a port for the PlayStation 2 was released under the title Lumines Plus. It added new skins and music tracks, although at the same time omitting some other tracks from the original game. In December 2007, Lumines was made available for Windows through the Wild Games network. On April 18, 2008, the game was released on Steam; however, both these PC versions are actually reduced versions of Lumines II, having the new interface and visually upgraded themes. Most licensed and some "regular" themes are omitted, as well as the "Versus CPU" mode and multiplayer.

Lumines Live!

Lumines Live! logo

Lumines Live! is a puzzle game based on the original PlayStation Portable game for the Xbox 360. It was released on October 18, 2006 as an Xbox Live Arcade title.

Lumines Live! is played in different "skins". Like software interface skins, these change the visual appearance of the board, but they also control the soundtrack. Each skin contains a different song and different sound effects, which are triggered by game events and then integrated into the soundtrack. As in Mizuguchi's earlier game Rez, the separation of soundtrack and sound effects is much less than in most video games. Skins are unlocked by progressing through the different game modes.

The game runs in 720p and supports 5.1 surround sound. It features seven modes of play, built-in multiplayer both offline and online, Achievements, Leaderboards and GamerScore support and online competitive modes.

A new feature in Lumines Live! over the original Lumines is the ability to create one's own sequence of skins from the skins that have been unlocked through single play mode. Any number of skins can be used exactly once in this sequence and the sequence can be set to either be a single time through (providing a score-attack mode), or to loop indefinitely (providing an endurance mode).

Lumines Live! is included on the Qubed compilation for Xbox 360 along with Rez HD and Every Extend Extra Extreme. The downloadable content included with Lumines Live! on Qubed consists of the Advance Challenge Pack, VS CPU Pack, Puzzle/Mission Pack, Rockin' Holiday Pack, and both Genki Rockets skins (Heavenly Star and Breeze). The only packs that aren't included are the Booster Pack and Tokyo Club Mix Pack, however, these can be downloaded separately and will work with the game on Qubed.

Lumines Supernova

The Lumines Supernova logo/icon, as it appears on the PlayStation 3's XMB interface.

In January 2009 Lumines Supernova was released on the PlayStation Network. It has all the features of Lumines Live! (with the exception of online multiplayer) as well as the sequencer from Lumines II and a new mode, DigDown Mode. DigDown Mode is a timed mode where the player has to clear two vertical lines within a time limit to move "down" to the next stage.

Critical response and awards

Lumines has received positive praise, garnering an average score of 89% from over 55 reviews on Metacritic and a score of 90% from over 72 reviews on Gamerankings; it was the highest-rated PSP title on both sites until being pushed to 2nd place by 2008's God of War: Chains of Olympus. Gamespot scoring the game a 9 out of 10 called Lumines, "the greatest Tetris-style puzzle game since Tetris itself" praising its sound and beautiful presentation Jeremy Parish from 1UP.com rated the game a "A" stating, "Q Entertainment has used the Tetris template to duplicate a lightning-in-a-bottle feeling equal in brilliance and addictiveness to the puzzle classic."

Game Informer's "Top 50 Games of 2005" list

GameSpot's 2005 PSP Game Of The Year

Electronic Gaming Monthly's 2005 Handheld Game Of The Year

Soundtrack

"Shinin'" Performed by Mondo Grosso featuring Kj Words by Kj Music by Shinichi Osawa

"Shake Ya Body" Performed by Mondo Grosso Music by Shinichi Osawa

"I Hear the Music in My Soul" Performed by Eri Nobuchika Words and Music by Shinichi Osawa

"Lights" Performed by Eri Nobuchika Words by Eri Nobuchika Music by Shinichi Osawa

See also

Mondo Grosso

References

^ "Lumines squares away half a million". 2005-10-11. http://www.gamespot.com/psp/puzzle/lumines/news.html?sid=6135483. Retrieved 2008-02-24. 

^ "IGN: Lumines Plus Impressions". 2006-11-01. http://ps2.ign.com/articles/743/743173p1.html. Retrieved 2008-02-24. 

^ "GameSpot: Lumines Supernova explodes on PSN". 2008-09-03. http://www.gamespot.com/ps3/puzzle/luminessupernova/news.html?sid=6197201&om_act=convert&om_clk=newsfeatures&tag=newsfeatures;title. Retrieved 2008-08-04. 

^ Aloupis, Greg; Jean Cardinal; Sbastien Collette; & Stefan Langerman (2007). "Lumines Strategies". In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer and Games, vol. 4630 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 190-199. Springer-Verlag.

^ Thomas, Aaron (2007-04-02). "Lumines Plus review". GameSpot. http://www.gamespot.com/ps2/puzzle/luminesplus/review.html. Retrieved October 28, 2007. 

^ "Lumines (PSP: 2005) Reviews". http://www.metacritic.com/games/platforms/psp/lumines. Retrieved 2008-02-24. 

^ "Gamerankings: Lumines Reviews". http://www.gamerankings.com/htmlpages2/924594.asp. Retrieved 2008-02-24. 

^ "Lumines review". GameSpot. http://www.gamespot.com/psp/puzzle/lumines/review.html. Retrieved 2008-04-20. 

^ Parish, Jeremy (2005-03-14). "Reviews: Lumines Puzzle x Music = Perfection.". http://www.1up.com/do/reviewPage?cId=3138819. Retrieved 2008-04-20. 

External links

Official Lumines website

Official Lumines Mobile website

PC Version website on Wild Games

Lumines: Puzzle Fusion at MobyGames

A computer-discovered solution to Challenge Mode

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Lumines video games

Lumines  Lumines Live!  Lumines II  Lumines Supernova

Categories: 2004 video games | Falling block puzzle games | Music video games | Mobile phone games | PlayStation Portable games | PlayStation 2 games | PlayStation Network games | Puzzle video games | Q Entertainment games | Video games developed in France | Windows games | Xbox 360 Live Arcade games | PlayStation 3 games

William Morris

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Biography

Early life and education

William Morris was born in Walthamstow on 24th March 1834, the fourth child and the youngest son of William Morris, a partner in the firm of Sanderson & Co., bill brokers in the City of London. His mother was Emma Morris ne Shelton, daughter of Joseph Shelton, a teacher of music in Worcester. As a child Morris was delicate but studious. He learned to read early, and by the time he was four years old he was familiar with most of the Waverley novels. When he was six the family moved to Woodford Hall, where new opportunities for an out-of-door life brought the boy health and vigour. He rode about Epping Forest, sometimes in a toy suit of armour, where he became a close observer of animal nature and was able to recognize any bird upon the wing. plastic coin banks

Morris's painting La belle Iseult, also inaccurately called Queen Guenevere, is his only surviving easel painting, now in the Tate Gallery. craft piggy bank

At the same time he continued to read whatever came in his way and was particularly attracted by the stories in the Arabian Nights and by the designs in Gerard's Herbal. He studied with his sisters' governess until he was nine, when he was sent to a school at Walthamstow. In 1842, his sister Isabella was born. She grew to be the churchwoman who oversaw the revival of the Deaconess Order in the Anglican Communion. In his thirteenth year their father died, leaving the family well-to-do. The home at Woodford was broken up, as being unnecessarily large, and in 1848 the family relocated to Water House and William Morris entered Marlborough School, where his father had bought him a nomination. Morris was at the school for three years, but gained little from attending it beyond a taste for architecture, fostered by the school library, and an attraction towards the Anglo-Catholic movement. He made but slow progress in school work and at Christmas 1851 was removed and sent to live as a private pupil with the Rev. F. B. Guy, Assistant Master at Forest School and later Canon of St. Alban's, for a year to prepare him for University. Forest School still houses many correspondence from Morris in their archives, and the School boasts a Morris stained glass window in the Chapel. marquee codes

Oxford, apprenticeship, and artistic influences

In June 1852 Morris entered Exeter College, Oxford, though since the college was full, he was unable to go into residence until January 1853. At Exeter, Morris met Edward Burne-Jones, also a first year undergraduate, who became his life-long friend and collaborator. Morris also joined a Birmingham group at Pembroke College, known among themselves as the "Brotherhood" and to historians as the "Pembroke set". Together, they read theology, ecclesiastical history, and medieval poetry; studied art, and during the long vacations visited English churches and the Continental cathedrals. They became strongly influenced by the paintings of the Pre-Raphaelites, John Ruskin's essay "The Nature of Gothic" from the second volume of The Stones of Venice, Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur and the poetry of Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Morris began to adopt Ruskin's philosophy of rejecting the tawdry industrial manufacture of decorative arts and architecture in favour of a return to hand-craftsmanship, raising artisans to the status of artists, creating art that should be affordable and hand-made, with no hierarchy of artistic mediums.

Moreover, Morris began at this time to write poetry and many of his first pieces, afterwards destroyed, were held by sound judges to be equal to anything else he ever worked on. Both Morris and Burne-Jones had come to Oxford with the intention of taking holy orders, but as they felt their way, both decided their energies were best spent on social reform. Morris decided to become an architect and for the better propagation of the views of the new brotherhood a magazine was at the same time projected, which was to make a specialty of social articles, besides poems and short stories. At the beginning of 1856 the two schemes came to a head together. Morris, having passed his finals in the previous term, was entered as a pupil at the office of George Edmund Street, one of the leading English Gothic revival architects who had his headquarters in Oxford as architect to the diocese; and on New Year's Day the first issue of the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine appeared. The expenses of publishing were borne entirely by Morris, but he resigned the formal editorship after the first issue. Many distinguished compositions appeared in its pages, but it gradually languished and was given up after a year's experiment. The chief immediate result was the friendship between Morris and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a contributor.

In Street office Morris formed an intimate and lifelong friendship with the senior clerk, Philip Webb, which had an important influence over the development taken by English domestic architecture during the next generation. He worked in Street office for nine months, first at Oxford and afterwards in London when Street removed there in the autumn. Morris worked hard both in and out of office hours at architecture and painting, and he studied architectural drawing under Webb. Rossetti persuaded him that he was better suited for a painter, and after a while he devoted himself exclusively to that branch of art. That summer the two friends visited Oxford and finding the new Oxford Union debating-hall under construction, pursued a commission to paint the upper walls with scenes from Le Morte d'Arthur and to decorate the roof between the open timbers. Seven artists were recruited, among them Valentine Prinsep and Arthur Hughes, and the work was hastily begun. Morris worked with feverish energy and on finishing the portion assigned to him, proceeded to decorate the roof. The frescoes, done too soon and too fast, began to fade at once and are now barely decipherable.

Marriage and family

Rossetti had recruited two sisters, Bessie and Jane Burden, as models for the Oxford Union murals, and Morris was smitten with Jane from the start. They became engaged in 1858 and married at St Michael at the Northgate, Oxford, on 26 April 1859, settling temporarily at 41 Great Ormond Street, London. Morris's only surviving painting in oils is of Jane Burden as La Belle Iseult. William and Jane had two daughters, Jane Alice (Jenny), born January 1861, who developed epilepsy in her teens, and Mary (May) (March 18621938), who became the editor of her father's works, a prominent socialist, and an accomplished designer and craftswoman.

Although of humble origins and unschooled in her youth, Jane Morris underwent a remarkable self-education after her marriage. A striking beauty, she mixed freely with the Pre-Raphaelites and posed many times for Rossetti, who became passionately attached to her. The Morrises' initial happiness together did not survive the first ten years of their marriage, but divorce was unthinkable, and they remained together until Morris's death.

Red House

Red House, Bexleyheath

For several years after his marriage Morris was absorbed in two connected occupations: the building and decoration of a house for himself and Jane, and the foundation of a firm of decorators who were also artists, with the view of reinstating decoration, down to its smallest details, as one of the fine arts. Meanwhile he was slowly abandoning painting; none of his paintings are dated later than 1862.

Red House at Bexleyheath in Kent, so named when the use of red brick without stucco was still unusual in domestic architecture, was built for Morris to designs by Webb; it was Webb's first building as an independent architect Red House featured ceiling paintings by Morris, wall-hangings designed by Morris and worked by himself and Jane; furniture painted by Morris and Rossetti, and wall-paintings and stained- and painted glass designed by Burne-Jones. However it contained no wallpaper, printed or woven fabrics, or carpets by the firm, these being manufactured from 1864, 1868 and 1875 respectively.

Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co.

Main article: Morris & Co.

In 1861, the decorative arts firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co.(later described by Nicholas Pevsner as the 'beginning of a new era in Western art ') was founded with Morris, Rossetti, Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown and Philip Webb as partners, together with Charles Faulkner and P. P. Marshall, the former of whom was a member of the Oxford Brotherhood, and the latter a friend of Brown and Rossetti. The prospectus set forth that the firm would undertake carving, stained glass, metal-work, paper-hangings, chintzes (printed fabrics), and carpets. The decoration of churches was from the first an important part of the business. On its non-ecclesiastical side it gradually was extended to include, besides painted windows and mural decoration, furniture, metal and glass wares, cloth and paper wall-hangings, embroideries, jewelery, woven and knotted carpets, silk damasks, and tapestries. The first headquarters of the firm were at 8 Red Lion Square.

The work shown by the firm at the 1862 International Exhibition attracted much notice, and from 1866 began to make a profit. In the autumn of 1864, a severe illness obliged Morris to choose between giving up his home at Red House in Kent and giving up his work in London. With great reluctance he gave up Red House, and in 1865 established himself under the same roof with his workshops, now relocated to Queen Square, Bloomsbury.

An important commission of 1867 was the "green dining room" at the South Kensington Museum (now the Morris Room of the Victoria and Albert), featuring stained glass windows and panel figures by Burne-Jones, panels with branches of fruit or flowers by Morris, and olive branches and a frieze by Philip Webb.

Although already the firms paid manager, in 1874 Morris wished to take sole control of the now profitable firm, but, unsurprisingly, had to buy out other shareholders. This venture into capitalism was a severe test of friendship with Rossetti and Ford Maddox Brown. Throughout his life, Morris continued as principal owner and design director, although the company changed names. Its most famous incarnation was as Morris & Co. The firm's designs are still sold today under licenses given to Sanderson and Sons (which markets the "Morris & Co." brand) and Liberty of London.

Kelmscott Manor

In 1869, Morris and Rossetti rented a country house, Kelmscott Manor at Kelmscott, Oxfordshire, as a summer retreat, but it soon became a retreat for Rossetti and Jane Morris to have a long-lasting and complicated liaison. The two spent summers there, with the Morris children, while Morris himself traveled to Iceland in 1871 and 1873. Kelmscott Manor remained an important retreat and symbol of simple country life for Morris in later years. It was the model for "the old house by the Thames" in Morris's News from Nowhere.

Socialism

In the 1870s, Morris had begun to take an active interest in politics. He became treasurer of the National Liberal League in 1879; but after the Irish coercive measures of 1881, he finally abandoned the Liberal Party and advanced into socialist politics.

In January 1883, Morris was enrolled among the members of the Democratic Federation, forerunner of the Social Democratic Federation. Over the next two years, Morris and party founder Henry Hyndman worked together as the best-known leaders of the fledgling organisation. For the rest of the decade, his creative efforts sprang from his socialist politics.

In March 1883 he gave an address at Manchester on "Art, Wealth and Riches"; in May he was elected upon the executive of the federation. In September he wrote the first of his "Chants for Socialists." About the same time he shocked the authorities by pleading in University Hall for the wholesale support of socialism among the undergraduates at Oxford. Nevertheless, the federation began to weaken. At the franchise meeting in Hyde Park in 1884 it was unable to get a hearing.

Morris had not yet lost heart. Internal dissensions in 1884 led to the Morris's foundation of the breakaway Socialist League, and in February 1885 a new organ, Commonweal, began to print Morris's rallying-songs. It was also during this period that Morris wrote his best-known prose works, A Dream of John Ball and the utopian News from Nowhere.

After the Trafalgar Square riots in February 1886, the League became caught up in a debate between those who believed in working through Parliament and with the existing union movement (alongside preparing and propagandising for revolutionary transformation) and an anarchist-influenced section who did not, a debate that distanced it from the growing working-class Labour movement of the decade. Morris played peacemaker but sided with the anti-Parliamentarians, who won control of the League at the expense of the departure of the 'orthodox' Marxist group.

From 1887, anarchists began to outnumber socialists in the Socialist League. The 3rd Annual Conference of the League, held in London on 29 May 1887 marked the change, with a majority of the 24 branch delegates voting in favor of an anarchist-sponsored resolution declaring that "This conference endorses the policy of abstention from parliamentary action, hitherto pursued by the League, and sees no sufficient reason for altering it."

William Morris (right) with artist Edward Burne-Jones, 1890.

In August 1888, Eleanor Marx and her partner, Edward Aveling, exited the Socialist League, followed by a number of other socialists from both the pro- and anti-parliamentary factions. The Socialist League was left to the dominant anarchists, with whom Morris had allied himself.

By 1889, the anarchist wing had completely captured the organisation. William Morris was stripped of the editorship of Commonweal in favor of Frank Kitz, an anarchist workman. Morris was left to foot the ongoing operating deficit of the publication, approximately 4 per week this at a time when 150 per year was the average annual family income in the kingdom. By the autumn of 1890, Morris had had enough and he, too, withdrew from the Socialist League.

The following years have been described as a time of disillusionment for Morris, but he continued to write articles and give public lectures in active support of the Socialist cause. Morris himself being perhaps the greatest British representative of what has come to be called libertarian socialism. Liberated from internal factional struggles, he retracted his anti-Parliamentary position and worked for Socialist unity, giving his last public lecture in January 1896 on the subject of "One Socialist Party."

Historic preservation

Although Morris never became a practising architect, his interest in architecture continued throughout his life. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (sometimes known as "Anti-Scrape"), which sprang into being as a practical protest against a scheme for restoring and reviving Tewkesbury Abbey. His preservation work resulted indirectly in the founding of the National Trust. Combined with the inspiration of John Ruskin  in particular his essay "The Nature of Gothic"  architecture played an important symbolic part in Morris's approach to socialism.

Later years

In his later years, Morris returned to the paramount interests of his life, art and literature. When his business was enlarged in 1881 by the establishment of a tapestry industry at Merton Abbey Mills, in Surrey, Morris found yet another means for expressing the medievalism that inspired all his work, whether on paper or at the loom. He then added another to his many activities; he assumed a direct interest in typography. In the early seventies he had devoted much attention to the arts of manuscript illumination and calligraphy. He himself wrote several manuscripts, with illuminations of his own devising. From this to attempts to beautify the art of modern printing was but a short step. The House of the Wolfings, printed in 1889 at the Chiswick Press, was the first essay in this direction; and in the same year, in The Roots of the Mountains, he carried his theory a step further. Some fifteen months later he added a private printing-press to his multifarious occupations and started upon the first volume issued from the Kelmscott Press. For the last few years of his life this new interest remained the absorbing one.

After his departure from the Socialist League, Morris divided his time between the Firm, then relocated to Merton Abbey, Kelmscott House in Hammersmith, the Kelmscott Press, and Kelmscott Manor. At his death at Kelmscott House in 1896 he was interred in the Kelmscott village churchyard.

Writings

William Morris was a prolific writer of poetry, fiction, essays, and translations of ancient and medieval texts. His first poems were published when he was 24 years old, and he was polishing his final novel, The Sundering Flood, at the time of his death. His daughter May's edition of Morris's Collected Works (19101915) runs to 24 volumes, and two more were published in 1936.

Poetry

Morris began publishing poetry and short stories in 1856 through the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine which he founded with his friends and financed while at university. His first volume, The Defence of Guenevere and Other Poems (1858), was the first book of Pre-Raphaelite poetry to be published. The dark poems, set in a sombre world of violence, were coolly received by the critics, and he was discouraged from publishing more for a number of years. "The Haystack in the Floods", one of the poems in that collection, is probably now one of his better-known poems. It is a grimly realistic piece set during the Hundred Years War in which the doomed lovers Jehane and Robert have a last parting in a convincingly portrayed rain-swept countryside. One early minor poem was "Masters in this Hall" (1860), a Christmas carol written to an old French tune. Another Christmas-themed poem is "The Snow in the Street", adapted from "The Land East of the Sun and West of the Moon" in The Earthly Paradise.

When he returned to poetry in the late 1860s it was with The Life and Death of Jason, which was published with great success in 1867. Jason was followed by The Earthly Paradise, a huge collection of poems loosely bound together in what he called a leather strapbound book. The theme was of a group of medieval wanderers who set out to search for a land of everlasting life; after much disillusion, they discover a surviving colony of Greeks with whom they exchange stories. The collection brought him almost immediate fame and popularity (all of his books thereafter were published as "by the author of The Earthly Paradise"). The last-written stories in the collection are retellings of Icelandic sagas. From then until his Socialist period Morris's fascination with the ancient Germanic and Norse peoples dominated his writing. Together with his Icelandic friend Eirkr Magnsson he was the first to translate many of the Icelandic sagas into English, and his own epic retelling of the story of Sigurd the Volsung was his favourite among his poems. Due to his wide poetic acclaim, Morris was quietly approached with an offer of the Poet Laureateship after the death of Tennyson in 1892, but declined.

Translations

Morris had met Eirikr Magnsson in 1868, and together they began to learn the Icelandic language. Morris published translations of The Saga of Gunnlaug Worm-Tongue and Grettis Saga in 1869, and the Story of the Volsungs and Niblungs in 1870. An additional volume was published under the title of Three Northern Love Stories in 1873.

In the mid-1870s, Morris's leisure was mainly occupied by work as a scribe and illuminator; to this period belong, among other works, two manuscripts of Fitzgerald Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam with illustrations by Burne-Jones. He was for some time engaged in the production of a magnificent folio manuscript of Virgil's Aeneid, and in the course of that work had begun to translate the poem into English verse. The manuscript was finally laid aside for the translation, and the Eneids of Virgil was published in November 1875. Morris also translated large numbers of medieval and classical works, including Homer's Odyssey in 1887.

Prose romances

In the last nine years of his life, Morris wrote a series of imaginative fictions usually referred to as the "prose romances". These novels  including The Wood Beyond the World and The Well at the World's End  have been credited as important milestones in the history of fantasy fiction, because, while other writers wrote of foreign lands, or of dream worlds, or the future (as Morris did in News from Nowhere), Morris's works were the first to be set in an entirely invented fantasy world.

These were attempts to revive the genre of medieval romance, and not wholly successful, partly because he eschewed many literary techniques from later eras. In particular, the plots of the novels are heavily driven by coincidence; while many things just happened in the romances, the novels are still weakened by the dependence on it. Nevertheless, large subgenres of the field of fantasy have sprung from the romance genre, but indirectly, through their writers' imitation of William Morris. The Wood Beyond the World is considered to have heavily influenced C. S. Lewis' Narnia series, while J. R. R. Tolkien was inspired by Morris's reconstructions of early Germanic life in The House of the Wolfings and The Roots of the Mountains. (The young Tolkien attempted a retelling of the story of Kullervo from the Kalevala in the style of The House of the Wolfings.) James Joyce also drew inspiration from his work.

Textiles

Cabbage and vine tapestry, 1879

Furnishing textiles were an important offering of the firm in all its incarnations. By 1883, Morris wrote "Almost all the designs we use for surface decoration, wallpapers, textiles, and the like, I design myself. I have had to learn the theory and to some extent the practice of weaving, dyeing and textile printing: all of which I must admit has given me and still gives me a great deal of enjoyment."

Morris's preference for flat use of line and colour and abhorrence of "realistic" three-dimensional shading was marked; in this he followed the propositions of Owen Jones as set out in his 'The Grammar of Ornament' of 1856, a copy of which Morris owned. Writing on tapestry weaving, Morris said:

As in all wall-decoration, the first thing to be considered in the designing of Tapestry is the force, purity, and elegance of the silhouette of the objects represented, and nothing vague or indeterminate is admissible. But special excellences can be expected from it. Depth of tone, richness of colour, and exquisite gradation of tints are easily to be obtained in Tapestry; and it also demands that crispness and abundance of beautiful detail which was the especial characteristic of fully developed Medival Art. - Of the Revival of Design and Handicraft

It is likely that much of Morris's preference for medieval textiles was formed  or crystallised  during his brief apprenticeship with G. E. Street. Street had co-written a book on Ecclesiastical Embroidery in 1848, and was a staunch advocate of abandoning faddish woolen work on canvas in favour of more expressive embroidery techniques based on Opus Anglicanum, a surface embroidery technique popular in medieval England.

Embroidery

Main article: Art needlework

Morris taught himself embroidery, working with wool on a frame custom-built from an old example, and once he had mastered the technique he trained his wife Jane and her sister Bessie Burden and others to execute designs to his specifications. "Embroideries of all kinds" were offered through Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. catalogues, and church embroidery became and remained an important line of business for its successor companies into the twentieth century. By the 1870s, the firm was offering both designs for embroideries and finished works. Following in Street's footsteps, Morris became active in the growing movement to return originality and mastery of technique to embroidery, and was one of the first designers associated with the Royal School of Art Needlework with its aim to "restore Ornamental Needlework for secular purposes to the high place it once held among decorative arts."

Printed and woven textiles

Design for "Tulip and Willow" indigo-discharge wood-block printed fabric, 1873

Morris's first repeating pattern for wallpaper is dated 1862, but was not manufactured until 1864. All his wallpaper designs were manufactured for him by Jeffrey & Co, a commercial wallpaper maker. In 1868 he designed his first pattern specifically for fabric printing. As in so many other areas that interested him, Morris chose to work with the ancient technique of hand woodblock printing in preference to the roller printing which had almost completely replaced it for commercial uses.

Morris took up the practical art of dyeing as a necessary adjunct of his manufacturing business. He spent much of his time at Staffordshire dye works mastering the processes of that art and making experiments in the revival of old or discovery of new methods. One result of these experiments was to reinstate indigo dyeing as a practical industry and generally to renew the use of those vegetable dyes, like madder, which had been driven almost out of use by the anilines. Dyeing of wools, silks, and cottons was the necessary preliminary to what he had much at heart, the production of woven and printed fabrics of the highest excellence; and the period of incessant work at the dye-vat (187576) was followed by a period during which he was absorbed in the production of textiles (187778), and more especially in the revival of carpet-weaving as a fine art. However, his first carpet designs of 1875, were made for him industrially by commercial firms using machinery.

Morris's patterns for woven textiles, some of which were also machine made under ordinary commercial conditions, included intricate double-woven furnishing fabrics in which two sets of warps and wefts are interlinked to create complex gradations of colour and texture. His textile designs are still popular today, sometimes recoloured for modern sensibilities, but also in the original colourways.

Tapestry

Morris long dreamed of weaving tapestries in the medieval manner, which he called "the noblest of the weaving arts." In September 1879 he finished his first solo effort, a small piece called "Cabbage and Vine". Shortly thereafter Morris trained his employee John Henry Dearle in the technique, setting up a tapestry loom at Queen Square and later a large tapestry works at Merton Abbey.

The Kelmscott Press

Trademark of the Kelmscott Press

In January 1891, Morris founded the Kelmscott Press at Hammersmith, London, in order to produce books by traditional methods, using, as far as possible, the printing technology and typographical style of the fifteenth century. In this he was reflecting the tenets of the Arts and Crafts movement, and responding to the mechanization and mass-production of contemporary book-production methods and to the rise of lithography, particularly those lithographic prints designed to look like woodcuts.

He designed two typefaces based on fifteenth-century models, the Roman "Golden" type (inspired by the type of the early Venetian printer Nicolaus Jenson) and the black letter "Troy" type; a third type, the "Chaucer" was a smaller version of the Troy type. He also designed floriated borders and initials for the books, drawing inspiration from incunabula and their woodcut illustrations. Selection of paper and ink, and concerns for the overall integration of type and decorations on the page, made the Kelmscott Press the most famous of the private presses of the Arts and Crafts movement, and the main inspiration for what became known as the "Private Press Movement". It operated until 1898, producing more than 18,000 copies of 53 different works, comprising 69 volumes, and inspired numerous other private presses, notably the Vale Press, Caradoc Press, Ashendene Press and Doves Press.

Publications

Kelmscott Manor depicted in the frontispiece to the 1893 Kelmscott Press edition of News from Nowhere.

Among the works issued by the Kelmscott Press were:

William Morris, The Story of the Glittering Plain (1891)

William Morris, The Defence of Guenevere and other Poems (1892)

William Morris, A Dream of John Ball and A King's Lesson (1892)

Raoul Lafevre, The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (1892)

William Shakespeare, The Poems (1893)

William Morris, News from Nowhere (1893)

William Caxton (trans.), The History of Reynard the Foxe (1893)

William Caxton (trans.), The Order of Chivalry (1893)

Guilelmus, Archbishop of Tyrel, The History of Geoffrey of Boloyne (1893)

Sir Thomas More, Utopia (1893)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Sonnets and Lyrical Poems (1893)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ballads and Narrative Poems (1893)

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Hand and Soul (1894)

Wilhelm Meinhold, Sidonia the Sorceress (1894)

William Morris, The Story of the Glittering Plain (1894)

Algernon Charles Swinburne, Atalanta in Calydon (1894)

An American Memorial to Keats (1895)

Sir Percyvelle of Gales (1895)

William Morris, The Life and Death of Jason (1895)

Geoffrey Chaucer, The Works (called the Kelmscott Chaucer) (1896)

William Morris, The Earthly Paradise (1896)

Sir Ysumbrace (1897)

William Morris, The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs (1898)

The Kelmscott Press edition of The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer, with decorations by Morris and illustrations by Burne-Jones, is sometimes counted among the most beautiful books ever produced. Full-scale facsimiles of the Kelmscott Chaucer were published by the Basilisk Press in 1974 and by the Folio Society in 2002. More modest facsimiles were published by World Publishing in 1964 and Omega Books in 1985.

Morris family tombstone at Kelmscott, designed by Philip Webb

Legacy

Assessment

Three years after his death, Morris's biographer John William Mackail (the husband of Burne-Jones's daughter Margaret and so a member of his immediate circle) summed up his career for the Dictionary of National Biography in a quote that is markedly prescient in its assessment:

The fame of Morris during his life was probably somewhat obscured by the variety of his accomplishments. In all his work after he reached mature life there is a marked absence of extravagance, of display, of superficial cleverness or effectiveness, and an equally marked sense of composition and subordination. Thus his poetry is singularly devoid of striking lines or phrases, and his wall-papers and chintzes only reveal their full excellence by the lastingness of the satisfaction they give. His genius as a pattern-designer is allowed by all qualified judges to have been unequalled. This, if anything, he himself regarded as his specific profession; it was under the designation of "designer" that he enrolled himself in the socialist ranks and claimed a position as one of the working class. And it is the quality of design which, together with a certain fluent ease, distinguishes his work in literature as well as in industrial art. It is yet too early to forecast what permanent place he may hold among English poets. "The Defence of Guenevere" had a deep influence on a limited audience. With "Jason" and the "Earthly Paradise" he attained a wide popularity: and these poems, appearing as they did at a time when the poetic art in England seemed narrowing into mere labour on a thrice-ploughed field, not only gave a new scope, range, and flexibility to English rhymed verse, but recovered for narrative poetry a place among the foremost kinds of the art. A certain diffuseness of style may seem to be against their permanent life, so far as it is not compensated by a uniform wholesomeness and sweetness which indeed marks all Morris work. In "Sigurd the Volsung" Morris appears to have aimed higher than in his other poems, but not to have reached his aim with the same certainty; and his own return afterwards from epic to romance may indicate that the latter was the ground on which he was most at home. The prose romances of his later years have so far proved less popular in themselves than in the dilutions they have suggested to other writers. Here as elsewhere Morris great effect was to stimulate the artistic sense and initiate movements. So likewise it was with his political and social work. Much of it was not practical in the ordinary sense; but it was based on principles and directed towards ideals which have had a wide and profound influence over thought and practice.

From a later perspective, Stansky concludes that:

Morris's views on the environment, on preserving what is of value in both the natural and "built" worlds, on decentralising bloated government, are as significant now as they were in Morris's own time, or even more so. Earlier in the twentieth century, much of his thinking, particularly its political side, was dismissed as sheer romanticism. After the Second World War, it appeared that modernisation, centralisation, industrialism, rationalism  all the faceless movements of the time  were in control and would take care of the world. Today, when we have a keen sense of the shambles of their efforts, the suggestions which Morris made in his designs, his writings, his actions and his politics have new power and relevance.

Today, Morris's poetry is little-read. His fantasy romances languished out of print for decades until their rediscovery amid the great fantasy revival of the late 1960s following the phenomenal success of Tolkien's Lord of the Rings. But his textile and wallpaper designs remain a staple of the Arts and Crafts Revival of the turn of the 21st century, and the reproduction of Morris designs as fabric, wrapping paper, and craft kits of all sorts is testament to the enduring appeal of his work. The William Morris Societies in Britain, the US, and Canada are active in preserving Morris's work and ideas.

Notable collections and house museums

Main Entrance to Kelmscott Manor

A number of galleries and museums house important collections of Morris's work and decorative items commissioned from Morris & Co. The William Morris Gallery in Walthamstow, England, is a public museum devoted to Morris' life, work and influence. There are permanent displays of printed, woven and embroidered fabrics, rugs, carpets, wallpapers, furniture, stained glass and painted tiles by Morris and his associates. In April 2007, The Guardian newspaper reported that funding for the Gallery was threatened by cost cutting by the London borough of Waltham Forest. A campaign to avoid the reduction in opening times and dismissal of key staff is underway. The former "green dining room" at the Victoria and Albert Museum is now its "Morris Room". The V&A's British Galleries house other decorative works by Morris and his associates.

Wightwick Manor in the West Midlands, England, is a notable example of the Morris & Co. style, with original Morris wallpapers and fabrics, De Morgan tiles, and Pre-Raphaelite works of art, managed by the National Trust. Standen in West Sussex, England, was designed by Webb between 1892 and 1894 and decorated with Morris carpets, fabrics and wallpapers. Morris's homes Red House and Kelmscott Manor have been preserved. Red House was acquired by the National Trust in 2003 and is open to the public by advanced reservation. Kelmscott Manor is owned by the Society of Antiquaries of London and is open to the public.

The Huntington Library, Art Collections and Botanical Gardens in San Marino, California acquired the collection of Morris materials amassed by Sanford and Helen Berger in 1999. The collection includes stained glass, wallpaper, textiles, embroidery, drawings, ceramics, more than 2000 books, original woodblocks, and the complete archives of both Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. and Morris & Co. These materials formed the foundation for the 2002 exhibition William Morris: Creating the Useful and the Beautiful and 2003 exhibition The Beauty of Life: William Morris and the Art of Design and accompanying publication.

Monuments

A fountain located in Bexleyheath town centre, named the Morris Fountain, was created in his honour and unveiled on the anniversary of his birth. Also in Bexleyheath, Morris' home Red House was opened up to the public by the National Trust in 2004. Also, Walthamstow Central tube station has William Morris inspired motifs (by Julia Black) in regularly spaced alcoves along the platform walls.

Literary works

Poetry, fiction, and essays

The Hollow Land (1856)

The Defence of Guenevere, and other Poems (1858)

The Life and Death of Jason (1867)

The Earthly Paradise (18681870)

Love is Enough, or The Freeing of Pharamond: A Morality (1872)

The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs (1877)

Hopes and Fears For Art (1882)

The Pilgrims of Hope (1885)

A Dream of John Ball (1888)

A Tale of the House of the Wolfings, and All the Kindreds of the Mark Written in Prose and in Verse (1889)

The Roots of the Mountains (1890)

Poems By the Way (1891)

News from Nowhere (or, An Epoch of Rest) (1890)

The Story of the Glittering Plain (1891)

The Wood Beyond the World (1894)

Child Christopher and Goldilind the Fair (1895)

The Well at the World's End (1896)

The Water of the Wondrous Isles (1897)

The Sundering Flood (1897) (published posthumously)

Translations

Grettis Saga: The Story of Grettir the Strong with Eirkr Magnsson (1869)

The Saga of Gunnlaug the Worm-tongue and Rafn the Skald with Eirkr Magnsson (1869)

Vlsung Saga: The Story of the Volsungs and Niblungs, with Certain Songs from the Elder Edda with Eirkr Magnsson (1870) (from the Volsunga saga)

Three Northern Love Stories, and Other Tales with Eirkr Magnsson (1875)

The Odyssey of Homer Done into English Verse (1887)

The Aeneids of Virgil Done into English (1876)

Of King Florus and the Fair Jehane (1893)

The Tale of Beowulf Done out of the Old English Tongue (1895)

Old French Romances Done into English (1896)

Gallery

Morris & Co. stained glass

David's Charge to Solomon (1882), a stained-glass window by Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris in Trinity Church, Boston, Massachusetts.

Burne-Jonesesigned and Morris & Co.-executed Nativity windows (1882), Trinity Church, Boston

Burne-Jonesesigned and Morris & Co.-executed The Worship of the Shepherds window (1882), Trinity Church, Boston.

Detail from The Worship of the Shepherds window (1882).

Morris & Co. textiles

Acanthus wallpaper, 1875

Snakeshead printed textile, 1876

"Peacock and Dragon" woven wool furnishing fabric, 1878

Design for Windrush printed textile, 188183

Detail of Woodpecker tapestry, 1885

The Vision of the Holy Grail tapestry, 1890

Acanthus embroidered panel, designed Morris, 1890

Strawberry Thief, furnishing fabric, designed Morris, 1883

Decorative objects

The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, text and decoration by Morris with illustrations by Burne-Jones, 1870s

Panel of ceramic tiles designed by Morris and produced by William De Morgan, 1876

Kelmscott Press

Kelmscott Press typefaces and colophon, 1897

William Morris, publisher

The Nature of Gothic by John Ruskin, printed by Kelmscott Press. First page of text, with typical ornamented border

Troilus and Criseyde, from the Kelmscott Chaucer. Illustration by Burne-Jones and decorations and typefaces by Morris

See also

Arts and Crafts movement

Eco-socialism

Merry England

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood

Social Democratic Federation

Socialism

Socialist League

Victorian decorative arts

Notes

^ a b c d e f g h i j Dictionary of National Biography, 1901, "William Morris"

^ a b c d e f g h i Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, "William Morris"

^ J. W. Mackail, Life of William Morris, p. 38

^ Robinson, Elizabeth (1924). Deaconess Gilmore. London: S.P.C.K.. pp. 53. 

^ Morris's authorized biographer, John William Mackail, states that Morris left Marlborough "a committed Anglo-Catholic." See J. W. Mackail, Life of William Morris, p. 17

^ J. W. Mackail, Life of William Morris, p. 25

^ Parry, William Morris, p. 90

^ Watkinson, Ray, "Painting" in Parry, William Morris, p. 90

^ Watkinson, Ray, "Painting" in Parry, William Morris, p. 93

^ a b Parry, William Morris, p. 14-16

^ a b Daly, Pre-Raphaelites in Love, p. 340-341, 402-404

^ a b Parry, "Domestic Decoration." In William Morris, p. 136137

^ Pevsner, Nicholas Pioneers of Modern Design (1936)

^ Charles Harvey and Jon Press, "The Businessman." in Parry, William Morris, p. 49-50

^ Todd, Pre-Raphaelites at Home, p. 123130

^ G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought: Volume II: Marxism and Anarchism, 1850-1890. London: Macmillan & Co., 1954; pg. 398.

^ Beer, A History of British Socialism, vol. 2, pg. 256.

^ Marx-Engels Collected Works: Volume 48. New York: International Publishers, 2001; pg. 538, fn. 95.

^ Beer, A History of British Socialism, vol. 2, pg. 256.

^ Clayton, The Rise and Decline of Socialism in Great Britain, pg. 44.

^ Thompson, E. P. (1976). William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary. New York: Pantheon. pp. 228. ISBN 0394733207. "The Society, which Morris dubbed 'Anti-Scrape'..." 

^ William Morris Society. "Merton Abbey". http://www.morrissociety.org/mertonabbey.html. Retrieved 2008-08-22. 

^ a b c d e f Faulkner, Peter, "The Writer". In Parry, William Morris, p. 44-45

^ "The words were written for the old French carol tune shortly before 1860 by Morris, who was in Street's office with Edmund Sedding (architect and compiler of carols, brother of the more famous J. D. Sedding; he died early, in 1868). Sedding had obtained the tune from the organist at Chartres Cathedral, and he published the words and tune in his Antient Christmas Carols, 1860."  The Oxford Book of Carols, 1928, p. 277.

^ Set to music by composers including Ralph Vaughan Williams. The Oxford Book of Carols, 1928, p. 406.

^ Full text, with illustrations, at "The Life and Death of Jason". Morris Online Edition. 1867. http://morrisedition.lib.uiowa.edu/jason.html. Retrieved 2008-08-22. 

^ Faulkner, Peter, "The Writer". In Parry, William Morris, p. 47

^ Lin Carter, ed. Kingdoms of Sorcery, p. 39 Doubleday and Company Garden City, NY, 1976.

^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p. 46. ISBN 0-87054-076-9

^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers, p. 40.

^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers, p. 26.

^ Hammond and Scull, The J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide, p. 816.

^ Hero, Stephen, "Morris and James Joyce," The Journal of William Morris Studies, 6.3 (Summer 1985): 36, p. 11.

^ Quoted in Waggoner, DianeThe Beauty of Life: William Morris & the Art of Design.

^ Parry, William Morris Textiles, pp. 1011.

^ Parry, William Morris Textiles, pp. 1617.

^ Quoted in Parry, William Morris Textiles, pp. 1819.

^ Parry, William Morris Textiles, pp. 3646.

^ Waggoner, The Beauty of Life, p. 54.

^ Parry, William Morris Textiles, pp. 103104.

^ Waggoner, The Beauty of Life, p. 86.

^ a b Fiell and Fiell (1999), William Morris pp. 160165.

^ Dreyfus, John, "The Kelmscott Press". In Parry, William Morris (1996) pp. 310345.

^ "William Morris and the Kelmscott Press". http://www.alfredom.com/art/morris.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-22.  See also Peterson.

^ Stansky (1983) p. 89.

^ "News from Waltham Forest". The Guardian. 2007-04-21. http://arts.guardian.co.uk/art/news/story/0,,2062448,00.html. 

^ "William Morris at the Victoria and Albert Museum". http://www.victorianart.btinternet.co.uk/va-web/victoria_and_albert_museum.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-22. 

^ "Crafts Cornered", Los Angeles Times, 15 December 1999, p. F1.

^ "Huntington Library: "William Morris: Creating the Useful and the Beautiful"". http://www.huntington.org/ArtDiv/morris.html. Retrieved 2008-08-22. 

References

Carpenter, Humphrey, Tolkien: A Biography, New York, Ballantine Books, 1977, ISBN 0-04-928037-6

Coote, Stephen, William Morris: His Life and Work, Smithmark Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1-85833-479-9

Daly, Gay, Pre-Raphaelites in Love, New York, Ticknor & Fields, 1989, ISBN 0-89919-450-8

de Camp, L. Sprague, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, ISBN 0-87054-076-9

Fairclough, Oliver and Emmeline Leary, Textiles by William Morris and Morris & Co. 18611940, Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery, 1981, ISBN 0-89860-065-0

Fiell, Charlotte and Peter, William Morris Cologne, Taschen, 1999 ISBN 3-8228-6617-2.

Hammond, Wayne and Christina Scull, The J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 2006, ISBN 978-0-618-39113-4

Kelvin Norman ed. The Collected Letters of William Morris Princeton University Press 1985 ISBN 978 069 1065014

Mackail, J. W., The Life of William Morris in two volumes, London, New York and Bombay: Longmans, Green and Co., 1899

Google Books edition of Volume I and Volume II (1911 reprint) retrieved 16 August 2008

Mackail, J. W., "William Morris," in The Dictionary of National Biography. Supp. vol. 3 (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1901), p. 197203, reproduced at the William Morris Society

Parry, Linda, "Textiles", in The Earthly Paradise: Arts and Crafts by Wiliam Morris and his Circle in Canadian Collections, edited by Katharine A. Lochnan, Douglas E. Schoenherr, and Carole Silver, Key Porter Books, 1993, ISBN 1-55013-450-7

Parry, Linda, ed., William Morris, Abrams, 1996, ISBN 0-8109-4282-8

Parry, Linda, William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement: A Sourcebook, New York, Portland House, 1989 ISBN 0-517-69260-0

Parry, Linda, William Morris Textiles, New York, Viking Press, 1983, ISBN 0-670-77074-4

Parry, Linda, Textiles of the Arts & Crafts Movement, Thames and Hudson, revised edition 2005, ISBN 0-500-28536-5

Stansky, Peter (1983). William Morris. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019287571X. 

Peterson, William S., A bibliography of the Kelmscott Press. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984. ISBN 0-19-818199-X

Peterson, William S., The Kelmscott Press: a history of William Morris's typographical adventure. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. ISBN 0-19-812887-8

Thompson, E.P. (2nd edition, 1976) William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary, Pantheon, ISBN 0-394-73320-7

Todd, Pamela, Pre-Raphaelites at Home, New York: Watson-Guptill, 2001. ISBN 0-8230-4285-5

Waggoner, Diane, The Beauty of Life: William Morris & the Art of Design, Thames and Hudson, 2003, ISBN 0-500-28434-2

Further reading

Arscott, Caroline. William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones: Interlacings, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press (Published for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art), 2008). ISBN 978-0-300-14093-4

Freudenheim, Leslie. Building with Nature: Inspiration for the Arts & Crafts Home (Gibbs Smith 2005 ) ISBN 978-1-58685-463-8.

Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds beneath the Snow: Left Libertarian Thought and English Writers From William Morris to Colin Ward (2006).

MacCarthy, Fiona (1994). William Morris: A Life For Our Time. London: Faber. ISBN 0571174957. 

Marsh, Jan (2005). William Morris and Red House: A Collaboration Between Architect and Owner. National Trust Books. ISBN 9781905400010. 

Pinkney, Tony. William Morris in Oxford: The Campaigning Years, 18791895 (2007).

Robinson, Duncan (1982). William Morris, Edward Burne-Jones and the Kelmscott Chaucer. London: Gordon Fraser. 

Watkinson, Ray (1990). William Morris as Designer. London: Trefoil Books. ISBN 0862940400. 

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

William Morris

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: William Morris

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: William Morris

Sources

Works by William Morris at Project Gutenberg. Plain text and HTML versions.

Works by William Morris at Internet Archive. Scanned books, many illustrated.

Works by William Morris at The Online Books Page.

Works by William Morris at sacred-texts.com, including full text of The Earthly Paradise.

William Morris Index Entry at Poets' Corner

The William Morris Internet Archive (marxists.org)

Biography by J. W. Mackail (Dictionary of National Biography, 1901)

"William Morris", Stephen Gwynn in Macmillan's Magazine, Vol. LXXVIII, May to Oct., 1898, pp. 153-160

Other

William Morris and his Circle

William Morris Stained Glass

William Morris at Art Passions

William Morris - The Soul of Arts and Crafts

The William Morris Gallery (London Borough of Waltham Forest)

The William Morris Society

A Morris and De Morgan tile panel at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The Pre-Raph Pack Discover more about the artists, the techniques they used and a timeline spanning 100 years.

William Morris online exhibition at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin

v  d  e

Textile designers

18th century

Anna Maria Garthwaite  William Kilburn

19th century

John Henry Dearle  William Morris  Franco Scalamandr  C. F. A. Voysey

Early 20th century

Alexander Girard  Ruth Reeves  May Smith  Thelma Johnson Streat  Silver Studio

Late 20th century

Laura Ashley  Hiroshi Awatsuji  Helen Berman  Valerie Campbell-Harding  Lucienne Day  Ada Dietz  Joan Glass  Lily Goddard  Hans Krondahl  Marimekko  Vuokko Nurmesniemi  Marianne Straub  Mary White

Contemporary

Celia Birtwell  Benoit Pierre Emery  Ivana Helsinki  Campion Platt

Persondata

NAME

Morris, William

ALTERNATIVE NAMES

SHORT DESCRIPTION

artist, writer, socialist, publisher

DATE OF BIRTH

24 March 1834

PLACE OF BIRTH

London

DATE OF DEATH

3 October 1896

PLACE OF DEATH

London

Categories: 1834 births | 1896 deaths | Artists' Rifles soldiers | Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford | Arts and Crafts Movement artists | British graphic designers | British Marxists | Communalism | English architects | English designers | English fantasy writers | English poets | English printers | English socialists | Libertarian socialists | Marxist writers | Mythopoeic writers | Old Marlburians | People from Walthamstow | Social Democratic Federation members | Socialist League (UK, 1885) members | Textile designers | Typographers | Victorian poets | British stained glass artists and manufacturersHidden categories: Articles with hCards | Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopdia Britannica